ith

God's Hiding Places.

Being a Christian in a Secular Age:
Towards a pastoral theology of „secularisation“.

Paul M. Zulehner
Vienna 2026

„When people stop believing in God,
they don’t believe in nothing - they believe in anything. ”
(attributed to Chesterton ¹)

Wien 2026.

Prelude

Clara is a young woman. She lives in a rural area and works as a nurse. She marries a down-to-earth young man named Valentin, who successfully runs a business with his brother. The wedding is a great celebration. Then Clara becomes pregnant. During childbirth, her uterus ruptures. She almost bleeds to death. Mortal fear overcomes her. She survives. Her son, Benedikt, grows up healthy.

Clara was traumatised by her near death. As part of her therapy, she is writing down her memories. Experiences are being interpreted. She gives me important passages from her unpublished diary.

Clara experienced both great love and great suffering. In the acute danger of childbirth, Clara initially found no religious comfort, but rather emptiness and anger. Soon, however, she connected her suffering and experiences with God. Were love and suffering, as Richard Rohr suggests², God's hiding places in her life?

Clara talks about young people in her community. She's noticed a shift in attitudes. Her generation no longer considers talking about God uncool. However, she remains sceptical of uniform, emotionally charged religious formats.

A friend describes herself as an atheist: With a twinkle in her eye, she talks about the contradiction between words and life.

I was surprised by how openly Clara speaks about God in her life, but also about the Church. Read it for yourself.

The great suffering: a birth with complications

„Behind the green screen, sheet after sheet was pressed into my abdomen. The senior physician ordered the head doctor ³ to be called at home so he could come. It was around 10 p. m. This feeling, which now mingled with my panic, was new. It was the fear of death. No one knew where all the blood was coming from, the suction device was running continuously and I wondered where the head doctor lived and how long it would take for him to arrive. Would I bleed to death by then, or would I survive? I had just given birth to a child and now the 'most beautiful moment' of our lives was about to become the worst? I had prepared for so many things. But preparing for death—that was something I had completely forgotten amidst all the birth preparations. Nothing made sense and my head felt like it was going to explode. I even forgot to ask God if he had finally abandoned me“.

It wasn't until the next day, back in my room, that I thought about God. I was convinced that the universe, or God, had trusted me with this experience because he knew I could handle it. Not just physically, but especially later on, mentally. And that, I think, was already part of the healing. I was able to keep clinging to the fact that I had been chosen for this life test—and the test was truly tough. Because everything that followed consisted of many difficult moments that I could only overcome thanks to the resilience I had developed over the past few years.

I wonder, why am I resilient? Several factors certainly play a role. For one, a strong environment, a social network consisting of family and friends, is a major part of it. Then there are the experiences that shaped me in my childhood, adolescence and early adulthood, making me who I am today. And certainly my faith, which has accompanied me since early childhood, also contributes. A silent companion to whom I have sometimes paid more, sometimes less attention – but a faithful companion and I am very grateful to have it.

I've had a really good life so far. A life where the positive aspects have always outweighed the negative. As a child, I often thought about how good I had it. I remember having conversations with God in my room very often, about everything that was on my mind – including how good I had it and my fear that something bad might happen someday. Because I thought that life couldn't always be good. It couldn't be – at least that's how I felt as a child. I don't know exactly why I thought that way. I don't have any siblings and I suspect that's why I had these conversations with God so often. And perhaps also because I was raised very Catholic. Maybe that would be helpful to me later on. I dealt with many of my thoughts on my own back then. I didn't tell anyone – only God.

Eventually, I grew up and life was a whirlwind: everything always went exactly as I had hoped. I completed my vocational training immediately after graduating from high school, cultivated wonderful friendships that have lasted to this day. I became a confident woman, always up for a good time, with a seemingly endless supply of energy. Three years ago, we celebrated a wedding that couldn't have been more beautiful and soon after, we were expecting a baby. That was the direct path to pure happiness and immense joy.

Looking back, God was certainly by my side in that critical moment, in the operating room. And he most definitely was when my traumatic experience troubled me for a long time afterward. Every cloud has a silver lining. I was overwhelmed by the love and affection I received from my family and friends. They dedicated so much time to us because, initially, I couldn't care for Benedict myself. And even afterward, so many wonderful people made time for me at home, taking time off work as if it were the most natural thing in the world. How fortunate I am to be so embedded in such a strong social network. That, too, helps heal a wounded soul. And I knew I could do it—perhaps God reveals himself in that thought. Why shouldn't I? Many people have experienced far worse fates, or something similar. People who, despite many setbacks, keep getting back up, who still laugh and find joy in life—they are my greatest role models. And perhaps that's precisely why God is such a good companion, because I've known him all my life. I don't need to get used to him or feel my way around him. We've known each other for so long that I can simply let him „work and take care of things“.

It was—or perhaps it still is—a search for my new self. After everything that happened, I felt like a new person and I had to find my way in this „new“ life. Looking back, I find it particularly fascinating that I've always felt drawn to Church events. Shortly after my birth, I desperately wanted to participate in the Christmas Mass. When the organ began to play „Silent Night“ and all the registers were pulled out, it was overwhelming. The sounds penetrated to my very core and made everything inside me tremble. It felt as if the music was touching me in the truest sense of the word. Never before had this song moved me as deeply as it did in that moment. Was that God? ⁴

Shortly after Easter, the Long Night of Churches took place and once again I felt an overwhelming urge to attend. A speaker I know very well drew a comparison that deeply moved me: setbacks or life-changing events are like Good Friday. Eventually—perhaps not after just three days, but eventually—Easter will come. This thought struck me with full force. The moment I woke up after the surgery was Easter for me.

It's good to know that one can get through these Good Fridays.

The great love: Benedict and Valentine

After the birth, an immense emptiness spread through me. No joy, nothing at all. I'm not ashamed to say that. But what I want to emphasize is that this had nothing to do with the love and affection I felt for Benedict. That was unconditional and had been built up even before his birth. A great love for our son and at the same time, this profound hurt, the trauma that had shattered everything within me. These are feelings that couldn't be more contradictory.

A few days after the birth, a woman came to my room, introducing herself as the hospital chaplain. She asked if she could bless our son. Although I had expected someone else and was briefly disappointed, I was very happy about her visit and asked her to begin the blessing. She read a short, touching text and made a small cross on Benedict's forehead. I was so moved by that moment and strangely enough, I could still start crying when I think about it. It was so fitting for that moment. Her calm demeanour, at a time when I was full of inner turmoil and nervousness, was just right. It might sound odd, but that special moment felt more like the birth itself. As quietly as she had come, she left the room again. She left us the text of the blessing, which I now keep in Benedict's memory box.

And of course, the love between Valentin and me has grown even stronger. This shared experience has profoundly coined us, has changed our relationship. We are even more connected. Is God revealing himself in this? Did he want to strengthen our bond, to show us that we belong together? We talk very often about everything that happened and how it affected us. We agree that we were able to learn and take away so many positive things for our relationship. We appreciate each other even more than before. Sometimes we wonder what our lives were like before. They were filled with many wonderful experiences; our wedding was a truly heartwarming day and we felt incredibly happy. But none of that compares to how we feel as a couple today. In the weeks and months that followed, Valentin was in two places at once. He was always 100 percent present at work and at home as well. He never complained or said he couldn't do it. He shared all my ups and downs and supported me wherever he could. He never judged any of my feelings. That's probably the greatest declaration of love there is, right?

It's no longer uncool to talk about God.

I have the feeling that God is becoming more present again. That people are talking about him more – and that he's no longer just considered uncool. What I also keep hearing from other young people is that they don't dislike God, but rather the Church as an organisation. I've never had a problem saying that I'm religious or that I go to Church.

Furthermore, I observe that more and more people are daring to speak about God and faith on social media. Is our inhibition about „coming out“, about openly showing our feelings and needs, lower when we don't have to do it face to face?

And in times like these, I think everyone is searching for support and security in something or someone. One of my best friends recently started working for the Catholic Church and has clearly observed a change: More young people are approaching the Church again. They are specifically looking for support and structure.

I wonder why this is. Is it a generation that grew up with a feeling of limitlessness? Are many so lost in a world where seemingly all possibilities are open to us – precisely because there are so many? In the past, there was only a limited selection of career paths; today, the list seems endless.

Is it perhaps also a generation that was no longer baptised or received First Communion because it was wanted for them to decide for themselves at age 18 whether they wanted to belong to a religion or not?

I am glad that faith was instilled in me from birth. I could have chosen against it at any time and set this inheritance aside. But I consciously chose it.

Is she really an atheist ?

I have a few friends who describe themselves as atheists. I often chuckle about this with them because, in my eyes, they aren't really that atheistic.

One of my friends is more involved in Church activities than one might expect from a committed atheist. She often accompanies services with our small chamber music ensemble – and it always amuses me a little. She laughs about it too. She sings the Lord's Prayer loudly and even knows exactly the right words for the liturgical responses.

I sometimes wonder: Do some people simply refuse to admit that they might actually be religious? Or is faith ultimately much more complex than we often define it?

That concludes the excerpt from Clara’s diary.

1. This clever statement doesn't come directly from Chesterton, but is taken from Émile Cammaerts' book The Laughing Prophet (1937), where Cammaerts paraphrases Chesterton's thoughts with the sentence: “When men choose not to believe in God, they do not thereafter believe in nothing, they then become capable of believing in anything“. Cammaerts, Émile: The Laughing Prophet: The Seven Virtues and G. K. Chesterton, London 1937, 211.

2. „Great love and great suffering are the two primary paths of transformation. ” Rohr, Richard: The Universal Christ: How a Forgotten Reality Can Change Everything We See, Hope For and Believe, New York 2019, 28f.

3. Primar is an Austrian term. Elsewhere, the term used is Chief Physician.

4. See also https://www.herder.de/communio/reihen/minima-theologica-das-theologische-tagebuch/eine-hommage-an-den-pianisten-und-dirigenten-vladimir-ashkenazy-licht-in-einem-ozean-der-dunkelheit/ (3. 5. 2026)

Everyday experts

Is „God is dead!” followed by
„Human being is dead!”?

Clara's diary entries explore the themes of this small book with the enigmatic title „God's Hiding Places“. They deal quite literally with God and the secular world of today. Many diagnose a disappearance of God. There is talk of God's death. Has God withdrawn? Is life in Europe being lived without God? Expert social scientists are researching the state of religion and Churches in our not-so-fortunately so-called „modern cultures”.

In early 2026, I conducted an online survey on the future of religion in Europe. ¹ Within a short time, over 10,000 people accessed the questionnaire. 6,869 questionnaires could be analysed. The interest in the topic was therefore enormous.

Online surveys are not always not representative, but they are nonetheless stimulating and informative. Experiences become visible and patterns of interpretation can be gathered.

Many participants were clearly very interested in the question of how the religious dimension is developing in Europe's diverse countries with their different histories and cultures. The fate of their Church also deeply concerns a significant number of those surveyed, to which, according to the data, they feel connected in vastly different ways: some attend Church on Sundays, while others do not at all. They hold very different opinions on whether the Church is relevant to our times. Some are distressed by the profound changes that have been taking place in Europe regarding religion and the Church – both terms being used interchangeably – and some even look to other continents for inspiration. Others, however, have had negative experiences with the Church and do not regret the apparent crisis within it at all; quite the contrary!

In expert circles and even among Church leaders, there is common talk of a „secularisation“ shaping Europe. Most of my interviewees agree that „secularisation“ (whatever they mean by that) is taking place in Europe. However, quite a few doubt that it is unstoppable. Some see new religious awakenings and speak of vibrant Gospel communities. One form of Church, many report, is disappearing, another is emerging. It is a simultaneous process of decline and renewal. They do not connect the question of whether the old continent will become godless in the course of this dramatic development with the fate of the Churches and some even with that of Christianity itself. God will survive the crisis. Humanity and thus humanity itself, is more likely to be in danger.

Respondents were given the opportunity to elaborate on the topic in an open-ended concluding question, which many did. The majority of participants were academically educated men and women who dedicated considerable time to the online survey. It is evident from their responses that the participants drew upon extensive personal experience and answered the questions from this perspective.

In my research, I have long made a point of listening carefully to such everyday experts. It is a kind of „implicit pastoral theology”, a „theology of the people”², a „pastoral theology from below“ ³, which I encounter here. At the same time, I see in such statements a valuable contribution to the sociology of religion, which is then not only achieved through excellent expert fieldwork and at the desk, but also springs from both positive and painful experiences. I will therefore repeatedly consult these dedicated individuals in my reflections. They constitute a valuable initial source for the considerations that follow.

1. Its primary purpose was to develop a suitable questionnaire for a representative survey in selected countries of Eastern and Western Europe on the same topic.

2. https://www.feinschwarz.net/leutetheologien/ (April 23, 2026)

3. Zulehner, Paul M.: The Church Listens to People. A Pastoral Theology from Below, Ostfildern 2021.

The religious-sociological interpretation dispute

This brings me to my second source for the reflections in this book: the sociology of religion and the church. I have worked in both disciplines for decades. My long-term study „Religion in the Lives of Austrians 1970-2020“ contains a wealth of material on the topic. ¹ I was also involved in the European Values Study from the outset, together with Jan Kerkhofs SJ. ² I gained much for my studies of religion from the sociology of knowledge of Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann³, with whom I collaborated and maintained close friendships. I wrote part of my habilitation thesis under the supervision of Thomas Luckmann (then in Konstanz) and Karl Rahner (then in München). It is entitled „Secularisation of Religion, Person and Society“.⁴ The other part, submitted to Rolf Zerfass, is titled „Religion by Choice: Analyses – Trends – Perspectives“⁵. With these two publications, I was able to qualify as a university lecturer in pastoral theology and pastoral sociology in Würzburg in 1973.

I have great respect and admiration for Peter L. Berger because he abandoned the secularisation hypothesis, which he had significantly helped develop in the 1970s, as early as the beginning of the 1990s. I was able to reinforce this by patiently presenting him with data from my many years of fieldwork, pointing out that it did not readily fit his secularisation assumption. Peter L. Berger's last book, „The Many Altars of Modernity“,⁶ documents this courageous 180-degree turn⁷.

Peter L. Berger embodies the questions that have preoccupied and deeply divided the sociology of religion in Europe for decades. It begins with the question of whether Europe is inexorably and irreversibly progressing down a secularising path. If so, what is affected by this secularising dynamic: the Churches, Christianity, religion itself? What comes after secularisation, should it shape the future of Europe? How will people live after the „death of God“⁸? Will they live more freely, without the constraints of religious deference to a God? Will humanity flourish and with it truth, justice and peace, or—as others fear—will the death of God bring about the death of humanity and the death of nature?

With gleeful derision, proponents of each position accuse one another, as well as theologians who refer to them, of denying reality: „Secularizers“ claim that many sociologists and theologians simply refuse to acknowledge data-supported developments and thereby lose their scientific credibility“. Desecularizers“, on the other hand, consider their opponents to be disguised ideologues who, in turn, fail to see religious and ecclesiastical movements or dismiss them as meaningless. Doubts are also raised about the interpretations of the data. There is even a suspicion that the secularisation hypothesis is less about interpreting data and more about pursuing an ideological agenda.⁹

Will I succeed in providing an unbiased and fair sketch of this struggle among experts in the sociology of religion? I will certainly try.

1. Transformation. Religions and Churches amidst cultural transformation. Results of the long-term study „Religion in the lives of Austrians 1970-2020“, Ostfildern 2020.

2. Zulehner, Paul M.: Hope for a tumbling world. A pastoral theology for Europe, Ostfildern 2024.

3. Berger, Peter L. /Luckmann, Thomas: The Social Construction of Reality. A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge, New York 1966. (Die gesellschaftliche Konstruktion der Wirklichkeit. Eine Theorie der Wissenssoziologie, Frankfurt a. M. 1969).

4. Zulehner, Paul M.: Secularisation of Society, Person and Religion. Religion and Church in Austria, Wien-Freiburg 1973.

5. Zulehner/Paul M.: Religion by Choice. Analyses – Trends – Perspectives, Ostfildern 1999.

6. Berger, Peter L.: The Many Altars of Modernity. Toward a Paradigm for Religion in a Pluralist Age, Berlin/Boston 2014. (Die vielen Altäre der Moderne. Religion in einer pluralistischen Welt, Berlin/Boston 2016.)

7. Soon after the conference in Berlin, Berger, Peter L. published: The Desecularisation of the World. Resurgent Religion and the modern World, Grand Rapids 1999.

8. „God is dead! God remains dead! And we have killed him.“ Nietzsche, Friedrich: The Gay Science, München 1999, § 125 („The Madman”).

9. Dux, Günter: Logic in the History of the Mind. The Process of Secularisation, Wiesbaden In this major work from 2018, Dux demonstrates that secularisation is not only a historical process but also an interpretive category that itself arose historically. He analyses how this category became politically effective (e. g., through the use to legitimize processes of secularisation). In his view, the secularisation thesis has therefore been ideologically instrumentalised.

Interpretations from a pastoral theological perspective

Religious and values research forms one pillar of my work. The other is pastoral theology, or practical theology. In theology, a shift in position and thus perspective takes place. The world and history are now considered from God's perspective.

In short, this is what it's about: God, though invisible, revealed himself, beginning with creation, in his „image“ Jesus, the Christ (Colossians 1:15). That the triune God is in himself a community of self-sacrificing love is shown in the „obedient“ self-giving of his Son even unto death on the cross, as the Philippians hymn sings (Philippians 2:6-11). In the resurrection, God testified to his Son and what he is for all: the salvation of the one world. In those who believe in Jesus, the Christ, it becomes clear that they are included in the stream of God's love. This shapes them into loving people.

What can practical theology say about what the interpretation of much sociological data on religion calls „secularisation“? What remains of the sublime and sometimes detached-from-reality theology when it enters into dialogue with social scientists about the socioreligious developments of our time, especially in Europe? It is a far from simple task to dialogically connect timeless, revealed statements with temporal developments uncovered and interpreted by secular sciences. Such a scholarly dialogue could inspire both sides. Theology could gain a more grounded perspective. Social sciences, in turn, could have their assumptions and questions examined and enriched through conversation with sound theology. The often perplexed Churches and religious communities would be grateful if they could be inspired by such a transdisciplinary dialogue for their service in today's world. No easy feat!

The actions of the Church(es): an ecclesiological perspective

All these questions so far have concerned data on the development of the religious dimension in Europe, its sociological and then theological interpretations. But how do these relate to the „event“ of Jesus, the Christ, his person, his deeds and his words as recounted in the Gospels? How do such interpretations shape the actions of the movement he set in motion for the coming of the Kingdom of God on earth—a movement that bears the honorific title of Church?

At the Second Vatican Council, the Catholic Church defined itself as „the Church in the world of today“ (Gaudium et spes, 1965). If this world is a „secular“ or „secularised“ world—which, as will become clear, are not the same thing—what, then, is the role of the Church amidst a development discussed under the ultimately inadequate term „secularisation“? The current „secularisation debate“ also offers valuable pastoral-theological suggestions on this matter, some of which will be considered in the final section of this book.

What to expect

This already outlines the demanding line of inquiry I will embark on with you. Methodologically, it is important to note that in proper sociology, reliable data is collected, which then needs to be interpreted. Data and interpretation are naturally related, but by no means identical. Experts in social science discourse can agree on data and yet interpret it quite differently. Pastoral theology is always engaged in transdisciplinary dialogue. Thus, it will study both the data and the diverse interpretations of that data: The social science interpretations represent a kind of „first reflection“, with the aim of gaining a better understanding of the data and developments.

But then, a good pastoral theology revisits the data and their interpretation a second time: a „second reflection” takes place. Now, data and interpretations are reconsidered from the perspective of the Gospel and its deeper understanding within tradition. This ultimately happens in the hope of inspiring the actions of Gospel communities.

This book contains the following four concise sections: collected data on the situation and development (1); the struggle for a more appropriate sociological interpretation of religion (2); the wealth of philosophical and theological interpretations (3); and suggestions for the actions of Churches and religious communities. This final section also offers inspiration for people who wish to live as believing Christians in the secular age (4).

I hope that this ambitious book lives up to the promise of this preface. If it is perceived as a solid contribution to a debate that is as contentious as it is heated, then it will have achieved its goal.

Paul M. Zulehner,
Wien 2027

Part 1: Data and Developments

I fear a sharp decline in Christianity in Austria. Due to immigration, Christianity in Austria (and Europe) is being overtaken by Islam; population growth is occurring (almost) exclusively in Muslim families, where religious upbringing is also significantly more pronounced than in Christian families. Within the next one to two generations, Christianity will therefore become a minority religion.
I don't believe that Europe will become godless, but rather „God“ will no longer be defined as God, but very individually as a higher power, fate, cosmic influence, or something else entirely. Even today's very self-centered young people need something to believe in, but they construct this something according to their own individual ideas. However, I do believe that Europe will become „Church-free“. The Church (especially the Catholic Church) is completely rejected by most young people, perceived as outdated, out of touch and therefore quite useless. ¹

According to my 2025 Online Study, many respondents describe their perceived religious and Church-related developments in our region using these or similar terms. They observe drastic changes in their living environment: regarding the Christian Churches and their participation in their lives and activities. A woman from Germany writes: „After various negative experiences with the Catholic Church and confronting atheistic views, I myself have turned my back on the entire construct of religion.“² Her decision reflects what³ is discussed in academic circles as „religious decline“, the decline of the „religious“ in its many facets.

1. Germany|Woman|1937|Big city|University|Sundays|712

2. Germany|Woman|1972|Large city|University|Monthly|2054

3. Mark Chaves coined this term: „The best summary description of American religion is this: religious decline. ” Chaves, Mark: American Religion. Contemporary Trends. Princeton 2011, 1.

Religious Decline

Membership study

The widely acclaimed sixth membership study (KMU) of the Protestant Church in Germany, in which the Catholic Church also participated for the first time, supports such perceptions with sobering figures.¹ Church leaders were alarmed by the findings. The researchers' main message: „The sixth Church membership survey reveals significant shifts in religious practice and in the level of attachment to the Church.²

The figures soberly reveal a drastic shift in religious and Church affiliation in Germany. The percentage of Church members in Germany fell from 72% in 1990 to 49% in 2022. 22% of the population feel „connected“ to their Church. For 17%, the Church plays an important role in their lives. Among those under 30, this figure is 8%. Entire generations seem to be silently slipping away from the Churches. This is also related to the fact that religious tradition is not or no longer present in family life: While 65% were raised religiously in 1990, this figure had dropped to 27% by 2022. The diminished or interrupted connection to a Church is also reflected in the reduced participation in worship services: While 29% of Germans attended Church on Sundays in 1990, this figure had fallen to 9% by 2022. Significantly less attendance is also seen at celebrations marking life transitions. In 2021, 19% of newborns were baptised, compared to 45% in 1990. As the number of Church members declines, the number of the so-called diverse group of „non-religious“ people increases. ³

One detail deserves attention and sheds light on the significance of the decline in Church attendance. It is the well-documented, though not entirely conclusive, but nonetheless close correlation between Church attendance frequency and agreement with Christian beliefs, a correlation that is evident in my own studies. The less frequent the exchange of ideas, the less likely someone is to have a Christian influence on what they „believe“. While 70% of Sunday Churchgoers affirm the existence of a personal God, this figure drops to 7% among non-Churchgoers. A similar pattern emerges with regard to the resurrection of the dead: 94% of Sunday Churchgoers expect it, compared to only 22% of non-Churchgoers.⁴

Such correlations support the assumption that with the decline in Sunday Church attendance—that is, regular exchange with a community of the Gospel—the Christian nature of people's faith is also evaporating. The image of God is shifting from Christian-theistic toward deistic, agnostic and atheistic.⁵ Church attendance frequency⁶, but also the question of whether the Church is relevant to our time, prove to be highly revealing individual indicators in numerous studies⁷.

The sixth Church membership study has been criticised. It focuses on „Church affiliation“ but not on „religiosity“. Critics argue that it is biased towards the Church and fails to analyse the religious dimension of society and its long-term development. Newer forms of religiosity are also given insufficient attention.⁸ However, according to another study, even such „vague religiosity“⁹ does not prove to be a stable alternative to the declining Church-organised Christian religiosity.

Despite all the criticism, the study retains its research value in light of these limitations. My long-term study on religion in the lives of Austrians from 1970 to 2020 shows similar data and trends.¹⁰ Methodologically, this project evolved over the decades from a Church-based to a sociological study of religion. Gradually, the entire Austrian population was included, meaning not only Catholics and Protestants, but also non-Christians and adherents of other world religions, such as Islam. The surveys have been representative of the entire population since 1990.

Transformation and colourisation

There are good reasons why the results, especially of my Austrian studies, cannot simply be dismissed on methodological grounds. Both studies derive their significance not solely from the results of individual items such as Church attendance or trust. Rather, sophisticated statistical analyses reveal¹¹ three dimensions: Church affiliation, subjective „religiosity“ as the more emotional aspect and what I termed „religion“ in my study—that is, the objective, content-related aspect, such as norms and doctrines. I termed these three dimensions „the socio-religious“ and then grouped respondents according to their similarity. Respondents with high mean scores in all three dimensions were labelled „Churchgoers“. Their proportion has decreased from 45% to 18% over the last half-century. Conversely, those with low mean scores in all three dimensions were labelled „secularists“. Their proportion has increased from 12% (1970) to 34% (2020).¹² The titles of the last two publications signal aspects of religious and ecclesiastical development“. Wandlung“ (transformation) emphasizes the dynamics of change, „Verbuntung“ (colorisation) in the sense of pluralisation its result.

Where is this development heading?

Undoubtedly, there is a strong dynamic at work in the ideological dimension of our culture. However, it is far more difficult to say whether this development will continue unabated. Researchers have attempted bold projections and forecasts for the Christian Churches in Germany¹³ as well as for the Protestant Church in Austria¹⁴. One participant in my study on the future of religion in Europe, however, ventures only a short-term prediction: „The decline in Church membership will continue for the next 10-20 years.“¹⁵Another interviewee is even more cautious in this regard: „The future is always only visible in the rearview mirror. Looking ahead, the windshield is icy!”¹⁶ Another study participant does assume that the current trend will continue. However, he then questions longer-term predictions for spiritual reasons, thereby venturing beyond the realm of sociological research: „In the short term (10 years), I suspect a further decline in Christian faith and religiosity. In the medium term (30-50 years), if a digital surveillance state were to become a reality, people would rediscover how free faith (=relationship with God) makes one and secretly turn to it (for example, China). In the long term, I expect Jesus to come and a new, better world to emerge. But no one knows when that will be.“¹⁷

Development in the regions of Europe

„The future is open and many things are possible. Worldwide, there is no decline in religions, quite the opposite. In Europe, the trend is rather the opposite. ¹⁸

This notice One study participant's contribution significantly broadens the debate on socio-religious developments, which in Germany are referred to as „secularisation“. It expands the perspective: from German-speaking countries to all of Europe and from there to the world. Furthermore, it no longer focuses solely on Christian Churches, but includes all religions in her considerations.

Studies at the European level, such as the European Value System Study, show that the continent has seen highly diverse developments in recent decades. Each region of Europe has its own unique situation and development. The religious character of cultures and thus their history, also clearly plays a significant role. There are very religious, predominantly Catholic cultures, such as Poland, Croatia and Malta. Alongside these are more secular cultures, such as those in Eastern Germany, the Czech Republic and Estonia. The Protestant cultures of Northern Europe exhibit different socio-religious characteristics than the predominantly Catholic South. Orthodox cultures in Eastern Europe have above-average socio-religious values. Therefore, what is happening in Central Europe (Germany, Austria, Switzerland) differs from that in other regions of the continent. This can be well illustrated by the example of Sunday Church attendance and its changes in recent decades. While Protestant Northern Europe had little to lose over the study years 1981-2020 due to its low baseline attendance, the proportion of those attending Church on Sundays in Eastern Europe increased after the fall of atheistic communism. Striking was the decline particularly in Western Europe, to which Germany and Austria were statistically assigned. ¹⁹

A similar trend can be seen with the „Nones”: While their share fell in Eastern Europe, it increased in Western and also in Southern Europe.²⁰

Global development

The focus now broadens from Europe to the entire world. One study participant illustrates this by comparing Europe with other continents: „Globally, there is no decline in religion; quite the opposite, in fact. In Europe, the trend is actually reversed.”²¹

The findings of these respondents can be corroborated by data from internationally renowned research institutes. The US-based Pew Research Center surveyed the development of the major world religions between 2010 and 2020. The report details the number of members in each religion and how their membership has changed over the past decade.

At the top of the list are Christians with 2,3 billion members. They are followed by Muslims (2,0 billion). Next come the „religiously unaffiliated“ (1,9 billion). Hindus (1,2 billion), Buddhists (0,3 billion), other religions (0,2 billion) and Jews (0,01 billion) complete the list.

Then the shifts: The largest numerical increase was in the number of Muslims (+346,8 million), followed significantly by Christians (+121,6 million). The number of Nones increased by 270,1 million. The number of Buddhists declined (-18,6 million). These figures change when the growth of the world population is taken into account. Then, the proportion of Muslims in the world population rose from 23,9% to 25,6% during the decade under review. The proportion of Christians, on the other hand, fell from 30,6% to 28,8% during this period. The proportion of Nones rose from 23,3% to 24,2%.

According to data, there are regions of the world where the number of Christians is declining, while other regions are areas of growth for Christianity. Despite all the regional differences, Europe as a continent is among those regions where the number of Christians is decreasing. The Pew Research Center reports an increase in the number of „non-affiliates“ even in the USA. According to the latest survey²², 28% are considered „non-affiliated“: of these, 63% are „nothing in particular“, 20% are „non-affiliated”, 20% agnostics as well as 17 % Atheists.

The development in Africa and Asia was different. In Africa, the number of Christians rose from 140 million in 1970 to 630 million in 2020. Growth was particularly strong in Nigeria, Ethiopia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya and Uganda.

Asia is also a continent of growth for Christianity: Here, the number of Christians rose from 95 million (1970) to 350 million (2020). The proportion of Christians has grown despite state control in China (by approximately 60–100 million), in the Philippines (Catholic and still growing) and moderately in Southern India. South Korea, which experienced strong growth in Protestant Churches during the 20th century, is stable today.

In Latin America Christianity is not growing, but it is transforming. The number of Catholics is declining, while evangelical/Pentecostal Churches are growing strongly. For example, their membership in Brazil increased from 5% in 1970 to approximately 30% in 2020. In Guatemala, 40% of Christians are now evangelical.²³

Looking at this data, one can conclude that the world map of religions is changing. Globally, this development is characterised by the growth of Islam and Christianity, particularly in Africa and Asia. Africa, in particular, is often described as the „continent of hope” for Christianity.²⁴ Its centre of gravity is shifting away from Europe; the Church's Eurocentrism is coming to an end.²⁵ Europe, in turn, exhibits strong regional differences, but it is the only continent where the Catholic Church and even more the Churches of the Reformation, are losing members, while the number of the Nones is growing. The regions of Europe are losing their historically established denominational character.

At the same time, migration also contributes to shifts. Members of Islam, but also Orthodox Christians, have led to an increase in these religious communities in Europe in recent years. Even though the number of non-members is also rising, this has not yet led to the disappearance of religions, but rather to religious pluralism, to a colourisation²⁶ of the ideological landscape. Europe is proving to be an ideologically unstable continent with strong dynamics of development.

Ideological instability simultaneously implies religious mobility. This is caused not only by migration but also by individual conversions. Churches that register departures through their financial systems have been experiencing a noticeable decline in paying members for decades. The annually published figures on Church departures are widely discussed in the media and cause concern among the major Christian Churches.²⁷ This has led to a financial crisis for traditional Church operations. Austerity programs have been implemented. Attempts have been made to mitigate the precarious situation with proactive structural changes, but these changes, in the view of many, are actually exacerbating the situation because they accelerate the leaving of members who lose touch within larger pastoral areas.²⁸ All major Churches are planning for a decline in membership as a precautionary measure.

This trend can be further accelerated by irritations made by the Church (such as various forms of abuse). However, even the avoidance of irritations clearly cannot stop people leaving the Church. This is evident, for example, in the fact that even during the „good years“ of the Catholic Church in Austria, under the respected Archbishop of Wien, Cardinal Franz König, a considerable number of people cancelled their membership.

But these are not the only observations made by participants of the study. They note not only religious mobility out of the Churches, but also into them. Some connect this with the hope that the current development may not be an inescapable trend after all.

I currently live in a parish that, despite many people leaving the Church, has 15 to 20 adult baptisms annually, including many young people. This is a hopeful sign, attributable to the openness of the pastor and the congregation. ²⁹

In the second part of this data analysis on the state and future of religion (in Europe, in our country), I turn to this other side of the development, which – increasingly perceived in the media – is described and discussed under the term „religious revival“.

1. Evangelical Church in Germany (ed.): How do you feel about the Church? On the significance of the Church in society. Sixth Church Membership Survey (KMU), Hanover 2023.

2. Ibid., 11.

3. Müller, Olaf: Church affiliation and non-religion in Germany, Wiesbaden 2013, criticizes the fact that these were not included in the KMU study.

4. Analysis of my own data on religion in the lives of Austrians in 2020.

5. Table: Sunday Church attendance and images of God

| There is a personal God. | There is some higher being or spiritual power. | I don't really know what to believe. | I don't believe there is a God, any higher power. | I don't know. | No answer
several times a week | 71% | 29% | 0% | 0% | 0% | 0%
every week | 69% | 27% | 3% | 0% | 1% | 0%
at least once a month | 49% | 44% | 4% | 1% | 2% | 1%
several times a year (on holidays) | 21% | 62% | 10% | 4% | 3% | 1%
(hardly) ever | 6% | 41% | 19% | 29% | 4% | 1%

Source: Religion in the lives of Austrians 2020

6. This position is also held by Detlef Pollack: „Church attendance is the most reliable indicator of the strength of religious ties. ” (Pollack, Detlef/Rosta, Gergely: Religion in the Modern Age. An International Comparison, Frankfurt a.  (M. 2015, 112.) „Where participation in religious services is lacking, religious identity loses stability across generations. ” (Ibid., 118.) However, even for him the statistical correlation is not without gaps: „Many people retain a cultural Christian identity even though they hardly participate in Church life anymore.“ (Pollack, Detlef: Secularisation – a modern myth?, in: Cologne Journal of Sociology and Social Psychology 55 (2003) 203–225, here 214.)

7. This was also the case in the old study by Gerhard Schmidtchen: What is sacred to the Germans. Religious and political currents in the Federal Republic of Germany, München 1979.

8. Pollack, Detlef/Rosta, Gergely: Religion and Modernity. An International Comparison, Oxford 2017. - Werkner, Ines-Jacqueline: Religiosity beyond the Churches?, in: Journal for Religion and Worldview 2020, 45–60. - Pickel, Gert: Religious change in Germany, in: ZfR (2017) 123–145.

9. Voas, David: The Rise and Fall of Fuzzy Fidelity, in: European Sociological Review 25 (2009) 155–168.

10. Zulehner, Paul M.: Transformation. Religions and Churches Amidst Cultural Transformation. Results of the Long-Term Study „Religion in the Lives of Austrians 1970-2020“, Ostfildern 2020.

11. These include factor, cluster and regression analyses. Denz, Hermann (ed.): Handbook of Empirical Social Research. Wiesbaden 2009.

12. Zulehner: Transformation, 241.

13. „According to a study, by 2060 less than a third of Germans will be members of one of the major Churches. The Research Center for Intergenerational Contracts (FZG) at the University of Freiburg predicts that the proportion of Church members in the population will fall from the current 54 percent to 29 percent. In 2017, 44,8 million people in Germany were members of the Protestant and Catholic Churches. By 2035, their number is expected to decline by 22 percent to 34,8 million and by 2060 by as much as 49 percent to 22,7 million“. https://www.zeit.de/gesellschaft/zeitgeschehen/2019-05/christentum-kirche-mitglieder-verlust-kirchenaustritt-taufe (June 6, 2026)

14. Goujon, Anne/Reiter, Claudia: The Future of the Protestant Church: Forecasts for Austria as well as for Burgenland, Carinthia and Wien, Wien Institute of Demography, Working Paper 02/2020. - Goujon, Anne Skirbekk, Vegard Stonawski, Marcin Weber, Daniela: World Religions and the Changing Demographics of Austria, IIASA Interim Report IR ‑13016, Laxenburg 2013.

15. Austria|Woman|1961|City or small town|University|(almost) never|4397

16. Austria|Man|1989|Big city|High school|Sundays|331

17. Germany|Male|1978|Suburb or outskirts of a large city|University|Monthly|340

18. Austria|Woman|1952|Big city|High school|Sundays|2904

19.

Table: Development of the proportion of Sunday Churchgoers in the regions of Europe

| 1981-1984 | 1990-1993 | 1999-2001 | 2008-2010 | 2017-2020 | difference
Northern Europe | 3% | 2% | 3% | 3% | 4% | 0%
Western Europe | 24% | 24% | 19% | 14% | 7% | -17%
Southern Europe | 26% | 29% | 23% | 22% | 12% | -14%
Eastern Europe |  | 19% | 15% | 13% | 13% | -6%

EWVS ( all 233099 respondents between 1981 and 2020)

20.

Table: Development of the proportion of non-members in the regions of Europe 1981-2021

| 1981-1984 | 1990-1993 | 1999-2001 | 2008-2010 | 2017-2020 | difference
Northern Europe | 6% | 12% | 16% | 23% | 28% | +22%
Western Europe | 11% | 23% | 24% | 30% | 39% | +28%
Southern Europe | 11% | 18% | 16% | 15% | 34% | +23%
Eastern Europe |  | 42% | 33% | 27% | 29% | -13%

EWVS ( all 233099 respondents between 1981 and 2020)

21. Austria|Woman|1952|Big city|High school|Sundays|2904

22. Among „nones,” 69% are under the age of 50, while 31% are 50 or older. By comparison, 45% of US adults who identify with a religion are under 50, while 55% are ages 50 or older. PR_2024. 01. 24_religious-nones_REPORT. pdf (June 6, 2026)

23. Pew Research Center: The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections 2010–2050, Washington 2015.

24. On the growing importance of Africa for the universal Church, see Pope Francis, General Audience of 20 September 2023 (Africa and Mission); and Pope Leo XIV, Address in Algiers, 23 April 2026 (Dialogue, Hope, Living Church).

25. Rahner, Karl: The lasting significance of the Second Vatican Council, in: Stimmen der Zeit 197 (1979) 795–806.

26. Zulehner, Paul M.: Colorisation. Churches in ideological pluralism. Religion in people's lives 1970-2010, Ostfildern 2011.

27. For others, like this study participant, this development evokes a completely different feeling: “I consider the term ‘de-Christianisation’ almost ragebait, completely unnecessary. I simply believe that religion and faith are private matters and should be treated as such. My ideal would be 100% secularisation, not only in Austria, not only in Europe, but worldwide. Surely one is still allowed to dream. ” Germany|Male|1955|Village|University|monthly|6804

28. „The Church in Germany is in the process of creating large, detached entities. In doing so, it is depriving itself of future prospects. These large spaces mean people lack a connection to their pastors and the Church itself. Disengagement from the Church will increase and the number of people leaving will rise. Overall, the blurring of the lines between Church membership and Church tax payment in Germany is a problem“. (other Western European country | man | 1947 | village | university | monthly | 2371)

29. other Western European country|woman|1962|city or small town|high school|Sundays|2304

Religious Revival

The assumption of an inevitable religious decline
is a Western illusion. (Samuel P. Huntington ¹ )

In Europe, an overwhelming amount of valid data points to a “religious decline“—a decline in Churches, Christianity and other forms of religiosity. Some project these observed trends into the future. But aren't such predictions risky from a scholarly perspective? For example, hardly anyone in the 1970s, given the rise of enlightened liberal positions, foresaw the right-wing populist trends that are now spreading worldwide. Such right-wing populism did announce itself tentatively but was ridiculed and dismissed as insignificant. Now, what began as small trickles has become an unmistakable, powerful current that is successfully pushing back liberal democratic developments in many countries.

From this, I conclude that some trends, however overwhelming they may be, can run their course and sometimes already contain within them their counter-trend. I am by no means referring to what some call the „return of religion“ or, looking backward, „respiritualisation”. The term „revival“ should not be interpreted from the outset as a „traditionalist“ return to the „old ways“, although that can certainly be the case. Rather, I am thinking of a change of direction. It could involve „religion“ in new forms that gradually emerge.

One can dismiss individual reports as exceptions. However, it cannot be ruled out that small „religious trickles“ could tomorrow give rise to a burgeoning religious current. The „religious decline“ could unexpectedly mutate into a „religious revival“: initially perhaps „justifiably“ ridiculed and dismissed, yet still possible.

In this section on „Data and Developments”, I will now present such religious phenomena that do not correspond to the previously presented data for the German-speaking world and for Europe. These are often events and individual experiences that have no place in the development described under “religious decline“. Are they merely those proverbial exceptions that prove the rule? Are they like swallows that don't make a summer? Or are they, though we cannot say for sure today, „swallows“ that herald a lasting “religious revival”?

Tipping point theory

To remain open to and vigilant about such developments in my research projects, I formulated what I call the tipping point theory. It states that once a cultural or societal development has become sufficiently saturated, it tips over and then takes an unexpectedly different direction. Thus, amidst the heyday of individualism, I began conducting studies on the cultural reservoir of resilient solidarity. When gender studies had rightly focused almost exclusively on women's studies, I began studying men. For years now, amidst progressive “secularisation”, de-Christianisation and the evaporation of secularism, I have been researching the diversity of non-Church-affiliated spiritualities. Together with others in my research environment², we discovered a form of revolutionary spirituality against the confines of suffered worldliness and were able to encapsulate the result in the formula: „Some escape (das Weite suchen), others seek the wideness (die Weite suchen)“. The escape, the flight from the unbearable, which can sometimes lead to the confines of sectarian groups, stands in contrast to the start into expansive spiritual realms.

Participants in my online study on the future of religion in Europe expressed both supportive and critical views on my tipping point theory:

Whether this trend will reverse is impossible to predict with any certainty, as it depends on several factors: geopolitics, the threat of war and economic development. I agree with Meinhard Miegel's analysis ³ that increasing individualism has a destructive effect on society. TikTok and similar platforms have a brain-altering and perceptual effect and in the long term, also an epigenetic one. ⁴

I believe that many social developments are a pendulum swing that can very quickly tip from one side to the other. ⁵

I think the image of a tipping point is too drastic. I wouldn't describe the trends or any potential changes as moving so drastically in one direction. I would speak of opposing trends. I find these very plausible, if only because new generations like to distinguish themselves from previous ones. ⁶

Despite all the concerns, could this tipping point theory still apply to current religious and ecclesiastical developments? Perhaps!

The following reports come from Norway, the United Kingdom, France, Austria and Spain—that is, from highly diverse cultures and countries in Europe. These reports are supplemented by findings and relevant commentary from my online study on the Future of Religion in Europe, specifically addressing the question of why young people are more likely to be the protagonists of such „deviant“ events.

Norway

Erik Varden, the Catholic bishop in Trondheim, Norway, stated: „Secularisation has come to an end for us“. And that is „quite simply because there is actually nothing left to secularize”.⁷

In an interview about these developments, which even surprised him, the Churchman noted: „I see a tectonic shift underway“. Interest in religion is on the rise again, particularly among young people. The bishop stated: „I'm observing an increase in religious interest among young people“. They are searching for „substance“ and have „little patience for empty, sentimental chatter“. In Trondheim's Catholic minority, this is reflected in „faithful participation in well-prepared and carefully designed Church services“, while monasteries and spiritual centres are gaining importance as spaces of „continuity in times of change“. Bishop Varden points to a post-secular phase in which deeper experiences are in greater demand: „I see a new longing for meaning, for criteria, for community, for truth.”

England

England is one of the most secularised regions in Europe. In 2025, a study was conducted among members of the Youth for Christ movement. It is entitled Z ‑A Growing Spirituality. It is about the Anglican Church in the United Kingdom.

A survey of 1,009 British teenagers aged 11–18 was conducted online. The results show a significant increase in spiritual openness. Young people today more frequently live in private or digital spaces and increasingly see themselves as spiritual guides: „An increasing number of young people are turning inward, looking to themselves for guidance, inspiration and even as who they pray to.”⁸

At the same time, spiritual activity is growing: The proportion of young people who believe in God has increased from 32% (2016) to 48 % (2025).⁹ 67 % believe in God and/or spiritual beings.¹⁰ Prayer is also increasing: 43 % pray; the proportion of daily worshippers has increased by 12 % in five years.¹¹

Those surveyed increasingly consider spiritual experiences possible: Among those who believe in God or spiritual beings, 96 % open to spiritual experiences.¹²

The study also shows an increase in Christian identification: The proportion of young people who describe themselves as „Followers of Jesus” has increased by 35 percentage points in five years.¹³

The perception of the local Church is significantly more positive than that of the „institution“ Church: 65 % view the Churches in their area positively and 70 % believe they would feel welcome there.¹⁴

Overall, the study diagnoses a „spiritual awakening” among Gen Z ‑A, characterised by self-searching, openness to transcendence and growing Christian practice.

France

Xandro Pachta ‑Reyhofen serves as a priest in Amiens, France. Like England, France is considered one of the „secularised“ countries of Europe. This occurred on Ash Wednesday in both 2024 and 2025. The priest reports:¹⁵

„Last year [2024], for the first time, thousands of young people across France flocked to Ash Wednesday Masses. We pastors were shocked. This year there were even more.“ A similar phenomenon occurred in 2025: „On Ash Wednesday 2025, well over 1,000 15-25-year-olds were in Amiens Cathedral.“ He describes how he saw „several hundred young men and women” entering the Church – completely unexpected, as many had grown up without religious socialisation. According to the priest, these events were not triggered by Church programs: „This has nothing to do with pastoral care or evangelistic campaigns. Apparently, social media plays a role. “It is a spontaneous, post-secular phenomenon: young people are seeking religious symbols and rituals of their own impetus. When a society is maximally secularised, space apparently opens up for new searches that are not institutionally, but existentially motivated. Young people in a highly secularised society were searching for rituals, meaning and baptism. Nobody had expected such a „return“ movement.

Still France. “Secularisation“ had led to a decline in the number of infant baptisms. Now, however, the number of baptisms is unexpectedly rising. In 2026, there were a total of 21,386 baptisms in France at Easter, including approximately 13,000 adult baptisms. The number of adult baptisms has tripled since 2016, rising from 4,124 to 13,000 in 2026. When asked by the Bishops' Conference, 40% cited no personal crisis as the reason for their decision.¹⁶

In 2026, a delegation from the German Bishops' Conference undertook a study trip to France to learn more about the „catechumenal transformation“ brought about by the boom in adult baptisms. Here is a report from Kathpress:

„Graz, June 16, 2026 (KAP). According to Graz-based pastoral theologian Bernd Hillebrand, the Catholic Church in France is experiencing a new dynamic due to the sharply increasing number of adult baptisms. 'Many leaders are experiencing, for the first time in years, that people are actively questioning their faith’, Hillebrand said in an interview with the Kathpress news agency (Tuesday) following a study trip by German-speaking Church representatives to the dioceses of Paris, Créteil and Saint-Denis. A palpable sense of renewal is particularly noticeable in the greater Paris area, the expert reported“.

The visit focused on discussions with Church officials and baptismal candidates about the significant increase in the number of catechumens and newly baptised individuals. According to official Church statistics, over 20,000 young people and adults received the sacrament of baptism in the Catholic Church in France this Easter. The phenomenon is particularly pronounced in the Archdiocese of Paris.

Personal experience as a starting point

Hillebrand admitted that he had initially viewed the development with skepticism. “Secularisation remains a reality“, he said. All the more evident, then, was the new sense of optimism, particularly in Paris. Only personal encounters had provided a realistic picture. “Statistics aren't enough. You only understand when you talk to people yourself“, Hillebrand said. Over the course of a week, the German-speaking delegation met with bishops, pastoral workers, catechumens and chaplains in various dioceses.

What struck him most was the motivation of many young adults. “Many spoke of a personal experience that had stayed with them“, Hillebrand said. These experiences had awakened in many a desire to deepen their faith and ultimately receive baptism. While social media and religious communities had played a role, they were rarely the decisive factor. “Most first sought contact with a specific person“, the theologian reported.¹⁷

Parishes in a new role

According to Hillebrand's observations, parish communities play a central role in the path to adult baptism. Contrary to the common assumption of a decline in the importance of parishes, in France they are often the first place of encounter with the Church. Not only the baptismal candidates themselves, but also the parishes are visibly transformed by the catechumenate – the preparation for baptism. In France, this is referred to as a 'catechumenal transformation of the Church'.

The Church in France has been preparing for baptismal candidates since the 1950s, Hillebrand explained. Since then, there has been a model of long-term support, with two years of preparation, fixed liturgical stations, regular catechesis and personal mentoring by a member of the parish. It is also noteworthy that these mentors themselves receive support. “The volunteers are not left alone“, emphasised the expert, who sees a need for improvement in this area in German-speaking countries.

Corona as a trigger

While adult baptisms in France had long remained stable at a relatively high level, they have risen sharply in recent years, with Hillebrand seeing the COVID-19 pandemic as the decisive trigger. Many young people learned at that time that technological solutions and promises of social progress do not answer all existential questions. Added to this are uncertainties caused by wars, climate issues and social upheavals. “This intensifies the search for orientation and meaning“, explains the theologian, who teaches in Graz.

Austria

In 2017, the study „What Does Austria Believe?“ was¹⁸ conducted. One of its most noteworthy findings is that young people (14–25) develop their religiosity differently than older cohorts: they tend to be more religious than average; at the same time, the cohort remains heterogeneous and therefore requires a differentiated approach. Instead of a clearly defined „religious revival“, a searching, experimental and partly (re-)traditional religiosity with a heightened orientation toward transcendence is evident. The long-term form of what is emerging remains open. However, these appear to be reliable key indicators:

14- to 25-year-olds show a higher level of religiosity overall than average; for some, religion is noticeably gaining in relevance.¹⁹

In this age group, ethical subjectivism and relativism are most pronounced. At the same time, there are tendencies toward a renewed interest in objective norms and religion; how these two elements specifically converge remains an open question.²⁰

Younger people differ from the average in their moral judgments; in particular, they show less permissiveness regarding issues at the beginning/end of life and in their sexual culture.²¹

The cohort is characterised by multiple contemporary crises; this intensifies the search for orientation.²²

Spain

A recent survey suggests a trend reversal in Spain after decades of decline: According to the survey, the number of young Catholics has increased surprisingly significantly in recent years.

According to the renowned educational foundation Fundación SM²³, 45% of respondents aged 15 to 29 identified as Catholic last year. In 2020, this figure was only 31,6%. At the same time, the number of agnostics and non-believers among young people in the country decreased.

Study leader Juan González Anleo sees the results as indicating a shift in the relationship between young Spaniards and religion. However, he points out that this is not a return to the Catholic faith in the classical sense. Rather, „concepts such as religion and spirituality are merging among young people today”.²⁴

1. Huntington, Samuel P.: The Clash of Civilisations, New York 1996, 31.

2. See also the study by Martin, Ariane: Longing – the beginning of everything. Dimensions of contemporary spirituality, Ostfildern 2005.

3. Miegel, Meinhard: Exit. Wohlstand ohne Wachstum (Prosperity without Growth), Berlin 2012, especially 45–62.

4. Germany|Male|1959|Village|High School|Monthly|3490

5. Austria|Woman|1955|Suburb or outskirts of a large city|University|(almost) never|2871

6. Germany|Woman|1951|Large city|University|Weekdays|2888

7. katholisch. de, 19.  11.  2025. https://katholisch.de/artikel/65790-bischof-saekularisierung-ist-bei-uns-am-ende (July 7, 2026)

8. „More and more young people are turning inward and searching within themselves for guidance, inspiration and even for the one to whom they pray. ” Ibid., 1.

9. Ibid., 17.

10. Ibid., 19. Such a return to God from a godless secular life is called anatheism“. Anatheism is the return to God after God – a wager of faith beyond both theism and atheism. ” Kearney, Richard: Anatheism. Returning to God after God, New York 2010.

11. Ibid., 26 and 28.

12. AaO. 20.

13. Ibid., 24.

14. Ibid., 33 and 36.

15. Pachta ‑Reyhofen, Xandro: A tectonic movement, in: Communio. International Catholic Journal, Herder. de, 2024. https://www.herder.de/communio/autoren/pachta-reyhofen-xandro (accessed April 29, 2026)

16. „French baptism boom continues: More than 13,000 adult baptisms expected”, in: katholisch.de, 22.  March​​ 2024.

17. https://www.kathpress.at/goto/archiv/2588567/frankreich-zeigt-dass-saekularisierung-nicht-alles-erklaert (20. 6. 2026)

18. Regina Polak/Martin Dolezal/Stefan Huber/Wolfgang Müller: What does Austria believe? Religiosity, spirituality and Church affiliation in the 21st century, Wien 2018 14 – 18.

19. Evidence of higher religiosity among 14- to 25-year-olds and, in some cases, a stronger orientation towards religion: What does Austria believe, 69f.

20. Pronounced ethical subjectivism/relativism among younger people and a parallel turn towards objective norms/religion: What does Austria believe, 66.

21. Lower permissiveness of 14- to 25-year-olds on issues at the beginning/end of life and in the personal/sexual sphere: What does Austria believe, 57.

22. Diagnosis of the present: Complexity and crisis as framework conditions for the search for meaning and orientation: What does Austria believe, 65.

23. Spanish Youth Report by Juan González-Anleo. Fundación SM (ed.): Jóvenes Españoles 2026. Madrid 2026.

24. https://www.vaticannews.va/de/welt/news/2026-04/spanien-anzahl-junge-katholiken-steigt-umfrage-ergebnis. html (May 1, 2026)

The young people and religion

In my online study „On the Future of Religion in Europe”, the „religious revival”¹, which has since been discussed in the media, was a separate topic.² A number of relevant statements were presented to the study participants. The study explored whether, in their perception, there were signs of a renewed interest among young people in religion or religious communities, as reported in England, France and Austria. Furthermore, it aimed to investigate what motivates young people who, deviating from the „secularising“ mainstream, nevertheless are seakers: What do they find attractive, why do they choose this path and what are their specific goals?

It makes little sense to present the percentages for the answers to the individual questions, because online surveys are not always representative. They merely show how the participants in the study actually answered. Nevertheless, useful hypotheses can be derived from the interplay of data and comments.

1. The respondents hold widely differing opinions on the question of a „religious revival“. Some report an increasing number of religiously sensitive young people, while others see no such development. It is noteworthy how different groups assess this development: older respondents are more optimistic than younger ones, women more so than men and education plays a role as does Church attendance frequency. Could individual experiences be mixed with pastoral wishful thinking in these results?

2. According to the respondents, these are some of the benefits young people who are religiously active gain: values³, community and celebrations, orientation⁴, meaning in life; they want to escape the banality of their current lives and the loneliness of digital bubbles⁵.

3. In addition to these benefits for their own lives, the study contains two statements that do not directly benefit the young people themselves, but rather serve other or central global concerns: „They want to advocate for others.” „They want to participate in projects of their religious community for peace, justice and the preservation of creation.”⁶ Both directions are rated equally positively by the respondents. Self-care and caring for others are in balance.

Right-wing appropriation of (new) religious dynamics

At the same time, we are seeing an enormous influx of young people to seemingly(!) Christian-oriented new communities,
which are either naively apolitical or politically arch-conservative and pose a danger to democracy. ⁷

I am afraid that more and more young men with right-wing and/or fundamentalist political views are becoming priests. ⁸

The final test item of my online study „On the Future of Religion in Europe” investigated whether the „religious revival” has anything to do with the resurgent global political right-wing movement: „They also want to support ‘right-wing’ to ‘right-wing populist’ movements”, was the statement tested.

In the current global right-wing movement, an unholy alliance is forming between evangelical fundamentalists and political populists. One variant is the so-called „neo-integralism“ that persists in America well into the second Trump administration⁹. This is related to Augustine's doctrine of the two kingdoms.¹⁰ The North African Church Father distinguished between a civitas Dei, permeated by love of neighbour and a civitas terrena, tolerated by God for the sake of order in this world, characterised by self-love, egoism. Augustine assumed that the two kingdoms would follow one another, meaning that the civitas Dei would eventually replace the civitas terrena at the end of time. The „neo-integralists“ take a different view. They see the Kingdom of God coming now; more precisely, they consider it their task to bring about this end-times state, if necessary by military means. Some, like the tech billionaire Peter Thiel, refer to the doctrine of the Antichrist and the final battle of Armageddon told in the Book of Revelation (Revelation 16:12-16).¹¹

In my study, observed spiritual awakenings did not only bring joy to the respondents. Some expressed strong concern. The „influx of young people into fundamentalist, authoritarian Church groups and thus their susceptibility to right-wing extremism/the AfD“¹², was lamented. The fact that „religious fundamentalism contributes to the rise of right-wing populism and the associated weakening of democracy (see Evangelicals in the USA), thereby violating individual freedoms and rights”¹³, causes great worry.

A woman from Lorraine comments on this in detail with regard to France:

What deeply troubles me is the rise of fundamentalism in our 21 st century, always linked to distrust science.
It becomes even worse when this fundamentalism combines with the terrible desire to return to the past. For example, here in France, where royalism and right-wing extremism are gaining traction in Catholic communities. This is mostly happening through small New Evangelisation communities, called „communautés nouvelles“. The word „new“ is used here as a deception, a way to return to the 19 th century and the old ways of the bourgeoisie and the Restoration. Jesus and Joan of Arc are being instrumentalised for political purposes. Unfortunately, all of this also finds support among traditionalists and, of course, fundamentalists. Whether Islam, Judaism or Christianity, it is high time to remove the blinders and work together to put an end to fundamentalism. A religion of idiocy and oppression should be consigned to the dustbin of history as unworthy of humanity. What increasingly troubles me is the ease with which supposed Church leaders are willing to follow warmongers and bless those prepared for war. This has absolutely nothing to do with the message of Jesus, since the Kingdom of God will enter through peace and justice, not through Pax Americana. Yet another old chestnut we know all too well.
Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord! We must get moving to prepare the way for Him. Kind regards from Lorraine. ¹⁴

1. In public discourse, there has been increasing talk in recent years of a „religious revival“ or perhaps more accurately, „religious vitality“. For example, the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung states that „new forms of religious vitality are emerging worldwide, particularly among young adults“ and that religion „is being rediscovered as a resource for finding meaning in times of crisis“ (FAZ: Religious Vitality Worldwide, Frankfurt a. M.).  M. 2023, o.  (p.). Similarly, the American Lowy Institute describes a „global resurgence of religion among young people”, which it calls „one of the great puzzles of our era”; faith is gaining new appeal „where secular culture has fallen short” (Lowy Institute: The Global Resurgence of Religion among Young People, Sydney 2025, no date and page). - „But we're clearly witnessing a protest against mainstream secularisation, as groups of youngsters yearn for re-spiritualisation or re-enchantment. Many are looking for meaning beyond material success, when such perceptions have become enfeebled in our pluralistic societies“. Jonathan Luxmore on August 8th, 2025 under the title „European religious sociologist predicts spiritual revival among young people” in the Church Times portal: https://www.Churchtimeco.uk/articles/2025/8-august/news/world/european-religious-sociologist-predicts-spiritual-revival-among-young-people (April 25th, 2026)

2. Karl Gabriel highlights a „civil society revitalisation of the religious”: Gabriel, Karl: Religion between Modernity and Postmodernity. Social Transformations and Religious Change, Freiburg i.  Br. 1992, 112.

3. „Young people are definitely looking for values that seem worthwhile/desirable to them. From a certain age, they no longer orient themselves solely according to the values they know from their family“. Germany|Woman|1963|Village|University|Sundays

4. Wolfgang Weimer, Minister of State for Culture and Media, said in an interview for „Christ in der Gegenwart 29/2026, 3”: „Many people in our country are searching for orientation and identity today. This is less about religion in the narrow sense than about the question of what holds our society together. Cold constitutional patriotism is not enough for many people. And that is a good thing. ”

5. „Young people are looking for friendships and relationships. They find relationships in forms of community: close structures provide support and warmth, but hardly any freedom. Long-term online relationships tend to lead to isolation“. Austria|Man|1960|Village|University|Weekdays|1764 - „I also have hope that these bubbles will burst“. Austria|Man|1961|Suburb or outskirts of a large city|University|Monthly

6. „I am optimistic that the younger generation will try out new ways of living, get involved in education and the environment, stand up for justice and strengthen a work culture that focuses less on profit and more on the common good, thus organising itself cooperatively“. Austria|Man|1959|City or small town|University|Sundays - “On the one hand, the strong individualisation does frighten me, on the other hand, I observe a great deal of commitment from young people in clubs and social institutions (fire brigade, community service, youth groups, choirs and bands, fair trade groups, etc.)“. Germany|Man|1958|Village|University|Sundays|4797

7. Austria|Male|1974|Farm or country house|Vocational school|Monthly

8. Germany|Man|1946|City or small town|University|Sundays

9. Crean, Thomas/Fimister, Alan: Integralism. A Manual of Political Philosophy, Heidelberg 2020. - Zimmermann, Steffen: Neo - Integralism: How Catholic Hardliners Fight Democracy, Bonn 2025. - Winkler, Katja: › Democratic Peace ‹ and Religion. The Political Ethics of Catholicism between Authoritarian and Democratic State, Stuttgart 2023. - Remenyi, Matthias: Fragile Sovereignty. A Political Theology of Freedom, Freiburg 2024. - Hollerich, Michael J.: Christianity and Empire. A New History of Political Theology, New Haven 2021. - The Vice President, the Secretary of State and the Secretary of Defence are all associated with him in the USA. Patterson, James M.: Catholic Integralism and American Politics, Political Theology 2023. - Zimmermann, Steffen: Neo ‑Integralism: How Catholic Hardliners Fight Democracy, katholisch.de, July 1, 2025. - Vermeule, Adrian: Common-Good Constitutionalism, Harvard Law Review 2020. - Douthat, Ross: The Return of the Catholic Right, The New York Times, 2020. - Burke, Daniel: The Rise of Catholic Postliberalism on American Television, Religion & Politics 2023.

10. Augustine, De civitate Dei XIV, 28.

11. Peter Thiel espouses an apocalyptic interpretation of history. He adopts key motifs from Carl Schmitt's friend - enemy dichotomy and René Girard 's theory of mimetic violence. Thiel does not argue in the usual jargon of technological progress, but rather in a “language permeated with apocalyptic imagery“ that interprets political conflict as a final battle and denigrates liberal democracy as a system of intellectual uniformity. Thiel's thinking is characterised by the idea of a historical „endgame“ in which technological progress is the only force capable of overcoming a perceived stagnation. Mallmann, Bernard: We should worry more about the Antichrist…, in: Communio Online from October 23, 2025, https://www.herder.de/communio/gesellschaft/eine-kleine-erzaehlung-von-peter-thiel-wir-sollten-uns-mehr-um-den-antichrist-sorgen-/ (April 28, 2026)

12. Austria|Male|1960|Large city|University|Monthly|4632

13. Germany|Woman|1975|City or small town|University|Sundays|6754

14. Austria|Woman|1953|City or small town|University|(almost) never|3767

Part 2: Sociological debate on the interpretation of religion

Secularisation in everyday life is proressing;
often not only is 'religion' no longer needed, but 'God' is no longer needed eithersation ¹

In my view, society is not becoming more secularised,
but rather religiously different. ²

These two quotes from the online study on the future of religion in Europe (2026) illustrate the range of ways in which current religious and ecclesiastical developments are perceived and, based on these perceptions, interpreted by attentive observers. Many use the term „secularisation“ without hesitation, while others reject it. The interpretations offered are therefore quite divergent.

The quantitative part of the study reveals a similarly contrasting pattern in responses to the statement: ”Europe is becoming an increasingly secularised continent“. In this non-representative study, respondents were distributed across all five predefined scale values, ranging from „strongly agree“ to „strongly disagree“. There was a slight preponderance of responses indicating agreement. Responses were significantly influenced primarily by education level, gender and age.³

Based on their everyday experiences, my survey participants thus accurately reflect the controversial opinions of professional sociologists of religion. All experts access the same data, which was collected through sound empirical research. However, their interpretations differ. While some interpret the perceived development of religion and Churches as an unstoppable and irreversible secularisation, others either categorically reject this interpretation of current developments as irreversible secularisation or see a highly heterogeneous development in which a „secular option“ is merely one strand.

1. Germany|Man|1952|City or small town|University|Sundays|971

2. Austria|Male|1940|Village|High School|Monthly|3080

3. This is shown by a regression analysis that statistically separates the influence flows: education (beta=-. 09), gender (beta=-. 07) and age (beta=-. 07).

Data and interpretation

Data always requires interpretation. In doing so, one „turns back“ to the data, „re-flects“ on it, considers it. In solid pastoral theology, this occurs in two ways. First, pastoral theology examines the first reflection provided by social scientists: Insofar as social sciences offer controversial interpretations, the rarely posed sociological question arises as to why some pastoral theologians access one interpretation and others another. To paraphrase Jürgen Habermas, what interest guides this understanding?¹

The second reflection in pastoral theology is theological. The data, already interpreted from a social science perspective, are now reinterpreted as „signs of the times“ (Gaudium et spes, 4) from the perspective of the Gospel. Therefore, this requires three steps: data collection, social science reflection and theological reflection. The data are then prepared to allow for reflection, together with experienced Church leaders at all levels and in all areas of Church life, on an appropriate development of practice. If a solid first and second reflection is omitted, pastoral theology falls into a justifiably criticised „sociologism“ and, consequently, into a theology-free approach. In the following discussion we focus on the first, social science-based reflection.

1. Jürgen Habermas: Knowledge and Human Interests, Frankfurt a. M. Main 1968 14.

Secularisation assumption

Secularisation will continue to progress;
all empirical data show this and I have no reason to doubt it. ¹

When I began writing my habilitation thesis in the early 1970s², „secularisation“ was a dominant theme in the sociology of religion. During my studies, I had the opportunity to spend a year with Thomas Luckmann in Konstanz. A few years earlier, he and Peter L. Berger had³ published the famous work in sociology of knowledge, „The Social Construction of Reality“.

The more modern, the more secularised.

Despite their shared sociological perspectives on knowledge, Berger and Luckmann did not agree on the sociological interpretation of the development of religions and Churches. This disagreement stemmed primarily from their differing concept of religion. Peter L. Berger preferred a „substantive“ concept of religion for his work. As the adjective „substantive“ suggests, a religious person is related to a „substance“, to something higher. Rudolf Otto⁴ characterised this higher power—he called it the sacred—as a mysterium tremendum et fascinosum. This religious relationship of individuals is embedded within a religious institution. Accordingly, Berger had an „institutional“ understanding of secularisation, which certainly had implications for individuals. The secularisation of both society and the individual is interwoven with those societal developments that Berger⁵ characterised as modernisation.

Similar to the secularisation process, in which Churches were separated from their property—in France during the Napoleonic era from 1799 to 1821—Berger argues that important societal subsystems such as science, marriage, education, the economy and law gradually detached themselves from centuries of dominant religious frameworks of interpretation. They emancipated themselves from the Churches, freeing themselves from their control (e manu) and thus from their power to shape society. Religion, as defined by the Church, lost its role as a comprehensive „order of meaning“ that shaped all aspects of life and became just one societal sphere among many. This, Berger contends, „inevitably led to a decline in the social significance of religion“⁶ and the Churches.

Besides institutional differentiation, Berger, in his early work, argued that ideological pluralisation and thus individualisation, in the sense of growing importance of the individual, is a central aspect of societal modernisation. This diversity relativizes the hitherto dominant religious tradition.⁷ There is no longer a religious monopoly and with it, the cultural self-evidence of religion has come to an end; the structural conditions for it have disappeared.

For members of modernising societies, this leads to the „heretical imperative“, which The compulsion to vote, the obligation to choose.⁸ Religion is being privatised, subjectified and, like the control over one 's own life as a whole, has shifted from society to the individual. Whereas life was once a „large enterprise in public hands“, it is now a „micro-enterprise in private hands“. Modernity has led to a shift „from fate to choice“, that is, from predetermined to chosen identities, which, of course, are still socially embedded.

Modernisation inevitably leads to secularisation in the sense of the loss of significance of religions and their communities in social life as well as in private life, according to the „early“ Berger of the 1970s. The rule of thumb was: „The more modern, the more secularised“.

Shift into the invisible

While Thomas Luckmann found much merit in Peter L. Berger's secularisation theory regarding the changing role of religion in the institutional and cultural framework, he ultimately did not adopt it. This was primarily because Luckmann favoured a „functional“ rather than a „substantive“ concept of religion.

In his „functional“ conception, religion fulfilled the task of providing an overarching order of meaning and identity, regardless of whether it was institutionally organised or not. For Luckmann, religion was not bound to Churches, dogmas, or public rituals, but rather to the anthropological necessity of embedding one's own life within a comprehensive horizon of meaning. He saw a close connection between religion and the transcendence of the self, essentially equating the two. And because humans cannot be human without transcendence, Luckmann consequently considered every human being to be religious as long as they were human.

Experts argued that such an equation was untenable.

The Graz philosopher Rudolf Haller (1929-2014) used the concept of immanent transcendence. This refers to the movement in which human beings are led beyond themselves within the world—not into an afterlife, but into an expansion of experience that occurs in everyday life, in the realm of values and in encounters. Consciousness itself possesses a structure of transcendence: intentionality means that experience always points to something greater, something that opens up immanent transcendence.⁹

Charles Taylor takes a similar position in his seminal work „A Secular Age“. He posits that within the „immanent frame“ of pure, albeit porous, this-worldliness, there exists an „immanent transcendence“. This is distinct from the „religious transcendence“ of believers, for whom the boundaries of immanence are permeable, allowing the immanence created by God to be filled with the presence of God.¹⁰

Hans Joas identifies a form of self-transcendence that is not necessarily in the sense of a God-centered religious experience, in which something appears to a person as absolutely binding and valuable. He connects this with the sacred.¹¹ It is not an object or an idea, but a mode of experience in which values are not constructed, but rather experienced. Joas therefore emphasizes that „holiness is the experience in which values arise”.¹² This experience simultaneously remains beyond our control, because „the sacred eludes our grasp”¹³.

We return to Luckmann: He agreed with Berger that institutionalised religion, in the course of modernisation, loses its public significance and shifts towards the individual, where it also weakens. However, he did not assume that religion disappears simply by shifting to the individual; rather, it sinks into the private sphere of the individual's mind. Religion thus becomes socially „invisible”¹⁴. Invisible religion remains a source of personal worldviews, biographical constructions of meaning and individual references to transcendence.

Multiple Modernities

The assumption of an inevitable religious decline
is a Western illusion. (Samuel P. Huntington ¹⁵ )

The close intertwining of secularisation and modernisation appeared original and undisputed in the 1970s and 80s. The common assumption that „the more modern, the more secularised“ was shaken by the data-supported insight that apparently not every modernisation necessarily leads to secularisation (Amitai Etzioni¹⁶). For example, Indian culture is technologically and economically highly advanced, yet thoroughly Hindu and religious. Similarly, the United States is both modern and religious. In the sociology of religion, this led to a decoupling of modernisation and secularisation. The term „multiple modernities“ was coined. This concept was systematically developed by Shmuel N. Eisenstadt and established as a counter-model to previous modernisation theory.¹⁷

In 1993, a conference with leading sociologists of religion of the time took place in Berlin. I had the opportunity to attend. There, Shmuel N. Eisenstadt presented his concept of „multiple modernities“ for discussion. One of the participants was Peter L. Berger from Boston. As a result, he abandoned his secularisation hypothesis: „The assumption that the world would necessarily become secular was wrong.“¹⁸ He immediately contrasted the secularisation processes that certainly existed in some regions of the world with a globally observable process of desecularisation. In further publications, he explained his radically changed position. As long as a society is truly free, people have a wide range of options available to them. Some of these is a secular interpretation and way of life. However, people are equally free to choose a religious or Christian path.¹⁹

Pluralism in the person

Berger, in a way that is often overlooked, further developed his modified position from the perspective of the sociology of knowledge. Because of the dialectic between society and the individual, ideological pluralism in society is inevitably reflected in the consciousness of its members. Therefore, further research is needed on how „modern people“ deal with this internal pluralism. In any case, this intrapersonal pluralism represents an epochal challenge for those affected. It is quite possible that some will cope with it skilfully. Religious and non-religious aspects could be brought into an inner dialogue. Others, however, might be tempted to escape the tension; a religious fundamentalism could develop that is simultaneously hostile to modernity. Still others might experience an atheistic suppression of the religious elements they perceive as disturbing. Berger himself suspects that most contemporaries are primarily characterised by doubt: „We live less in an age of disbelief than in an age of doubt.“²⁰

1. Austria|Man|1951|Big city|High school|Sundays|1892

2. Zulehner, Paul M.: Secularisation of Society, Person and Religion. Religion and Church in Austria, Freiburg 1973.

3. Berger, Peter L. /Luckmann, Thomas: The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge, Mew York 1966.

4. Otto, Rudolf: The Holy: On the Irrational in the Idea of the Divine and its Relationship to the Rational, Breslau 1917.

5. The concept of „modernity“ is itself the subject of intense criticism. Several influential thinkers have shown that modernity is neither a unified nor a neutral term, but rather a historically contingent, often ideologically charged self-description of the West. Shmuel N. Eisenstadt emphasizes that there is not one modernity, but rather „multiple modernities“, that is, different cultural paths of modernisation (Eisenstadt, Shmuel N.: Multiple Modernities, Cambridge 2000, 2). This fundamentally calls into question the idea of a universal, linear development toward Western rationality.
Jean ‑-François Lyotard criticizes modernity as a „master narrative“ that fails to reflect on its own belief in progress. His famous statement, „Incredulity toward metanarratives is the hallmark of the postmodern“, demonstrates that modernity itself is a grand narrative that presents itself as objective but in reality conveys normative claims to power (Lyotard, Jean ‑François: La condition postmoderne, Paris 1979, 7).
Critical Theory, too, views modernity not as a project of liberation but as an ambivalent formation. Horkheimer and Adorno put it succinctly: „Enlightenment is totalitarian“—a diagnosis that shows that modernity, through rationalisation and technologisation, produces new forms of domination (Horkheimer, Max/Adorno, Theodor W.: Dialectic of Enlightenment, Amsterdam 1947, 3).
Charles Taylor, in turn, criticizes not modernity itself, but the notion that it is necessarily secular. His concept of the „immanent frame” shows that while modernity is indeed immanently structured, it is not necessarily closed: „The immanent frame is not necessarily a closed one” (Taylor, Charles: A Secular Age, Cambridge MA 2007, 542). This makes it clear that modernity does not necessarily lead to the suppression of religion, but rather creates new conditions under which belief and unbelief are equally possible.
Hans Joas criticizes the secularisation theory as being „itself a product of the belief in progress” and therefore unsuitable for explaining the religious diversity of the present (Joas, Hans: Faith as an Option, Freiburg 2012, 18). For Joas, modernity is not a destination, but an open historical formation.
Finally, Odo Marquard sees modernity as an overwhelming challenge for humanity. His statement, „Man is a being in need of relief“, points to the fact that modernity ‑burdens the individual with pressures for self-justification and self-optimisation, which can lead to exhaustion (Marquard, Odo: Farewell to the Fundamental, Stuttgart 1981, 11).
Nietzsche interprets modernity as an era of human self-deification. His famous statement, „God is dead—and we have killed him“, shows that modernity not only loses its connection to God but also elevates humanity itself to the measure of all things (Nietzsche, Friedrich: The Gay Science, Chemnitz 1882, §125). Sloterdijk builds on this when he describes modern man as a „being of practice“ who enhances himself through anthropotechnical practices (Sloterdijk, Peter: You Must Change Your Life, Frankfurt a. M. 2009, 13).

6. „Modernisation inevitably leads to a decline of the social significance of religion.” Berger, Peter L.: The Sacred Canopy. Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion, New York 1967, 107.

7. „Pluralism relativizes the religious tradition.“ Ibid., 151.

8. „The modern individual must choose; he cannot but choose“. Berger, Peter L.: The Heretical Imperative. Contemporary Possibilities of Religious Affirmation, New York 1979, 15. - „Modernity creates a situation in which the individual is forced to choose.“ Ibid., 16.

9. Haller, Rudolf: Studies on Austrian Philosophy, Amsterdam 1993.

10. Taylor, Charles: A Secular Age, Cambridge 2007, 600.

11. Joas, Hans: The Power of the Sacred. An Alternative to the History of Disenchantment, Berlin 2017, 16.

12. Ibid., 22.

13. Ibid., 47.

14. Luckmann, Thomas:. The Invisible Religion: The Problem of Religion in Modern Society (Knowledge, Communication and Society), New York 1967.

15. Huntington, Samuel P.: The Clash of Civilisations, New York 1996, 31.

16. Communities need shared values to survive – religion is one of the strongest sources of such values. Etzioni, Amitai: The Spirit of Community, New York 1993, 24.

17. Eisenstadt, Shmuel N.: Multiple Modernities, in: Daedalus 129/1 (2000), 1–29.

18. Berger, Peter L.: The Desecularisation of the World. Resurgent Religion at the modern World, Grand Rapids 1999, 2.

19. For this choice, Peter L. Berger uses the Greek term „heresy” in the sense of „having to choose” (Berger Peter L.: The Heretical Imperative. Contemporary Possibilities of Religious Affirmation, New York 1979).

20. „Ours is not so much an age of unbelief as an age of doubt. ” Berger: The many Altars, 68. – Also the study Berger, Peter L/Zijderveld, Anton: In Praise of Doubt. How to Have Convictions Without Becoming a Fanatic, New York 2009.

A publicly held wrestling match

The interpretation of the role of religion in contemporary societies was not only different between Berger and Luckmann. This tension is also found in Berger's own life's work, both as „early Berger“ and „later Berger“. The controversy continues to this day, although there is currently a noticeable shift in academic circles toward rejecting the secularisation hypothesis. One could even consider Berger's personal development as a prototype for the development in contemporary academic circles.

I will examine the current struggle in the interpretive dispute. This involves encountering both proponents of the secularisation theory and those who reject it and propose an alternative interpretation that they consider superior.

Secularizers

The „secularizers“¹ —if I can use that term for simplicity— continue to point primarily to the development of indicators of Church affiliation, such as membership or Church attendance.² They argue that Church-mediated beliefs, such as the image of a personal God or the resurrection of Christ, are becoming increasingly rare.³ The growing number of non-believers⁴, „somethingists⁵„, apatheists⁶ and religiously indifferent individuals also⁷ appears to them as grist for their argument that secularisation in modern societies is irreversible.

Secularizers are convinced that, notwithstanding isolated developments that contradict their interpretation, the process is unstoppable and irreversible. A report on a lecture at the Catholic University of Linz states: “This finding would not be altered by recent phenomena such as the return of religion to the political sphere in the USA or in some parts of Orthodoxy, added Pollack. On the contrary: the sudden visibility and new political relevance of religion in these phenomena would cause numerous ‘negative consequential costs,’ and the supposed ‘heyday’ would ultimately accelerate the decline”, the sociologist of religion asserted.⁸

The secular option

However, there is a considerable number of experts⁹ who reject the interpretation of the data through the lens of secularisation and propose an alternative, in their view more appropriate, interpretive model. Charles Taylor's work „A Secular Age“ has been of paramount importance, in which he emphasizes right at the beginning: „We live in a secular age, but not in an age without religion.“¹⁰ He calls this age secular not because an unstoppable and irreversible secularisation is taking place, but because, alongside the previously sole „religious option“, a „secular option“ has emerged. It is now possible, without social disadvantage, to interpret the world without transcendence¹¹, which Taylor calls „immanent framing“. To put it in terms of the sociology of knowledge: The secular world then has a limited, purely this-worldly scope of transcendence (“Reichweite”, “Transzendenzspannweite”); it appears closed off, but it is not necessarily so.¹² Believers who live within this „immanent frame”, experience—unlike secular people—the same world, but one permeated by grace, calling, gift and transcendence.¹³ They live in a „porous” mode of existence, in contrast to the „armored” secular subjectivity. Taylor then speaks of a „sense of a world charged with the presence of God”.¹⁴

Taylor acknowledges the driving forces often cited as characteristics of modernisation. These include functional differentiation, in which science, state and economy detach themselves from religious interpretations. He discusses individualisation under the heading of new social imaginaries, referring to the claim to autonomy and human rights. He also argues that modern people in the secular age find new avenues for experiencing transcendence in art, literature¹⁵, music¹⁶, morality and vocation.

In contrast to the „secularizers“, Tayler emphasizes that modernity, as understood in this way, does not automatically cause the loss of religion. Rather, it now incorporates a secular option alongside the religious one. People are now able to „opt“ for one or the other. Conversions are not only possible but also probable.¹⁷ This, of course, has far-reaching consequences for religion and, consequently, for the activities of religious communities. The hitherto „naive“ cultural self-evidence of (Christian) religion is, in any case, irretrievably lost.

In my pastoral theology for Europe¹⁸, I have attempted to trace how, in my view, this secular option developed historically and¹⁹ became formative for the development of the Christian religion in Europe. This history of its origins also helps to understand why Europe is a special case for the (current) development of Christianity. It can also clarify why, even today, the situation of Christianity and its development vary considerably across the continent's different regions and cultures. Here is a brief outline of this turbulent development.

The Reformation, along with its diverse Catholic precursors²⁰ and, in its wake, the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), unleashed an enormous transformative power on the ideological landscape of Europe. The unified Western Church split into denominations. Due to its close entanglement with political forces such as the emperor and the princes, the Thirty Year’s War was not only an internal ecclesiastical event but also a religious-political one. God was invoked by both sides to justify military violence. This left the denominations in a difficult position after the Peace of Westphalia: they had blood on their hands. Despite their peace ethic of the Sermon on the Mount, they could not maintain the „public peace“ and were unable to restore it. Voltaire therefore called for a religion of philosophers, independent of the Churches. This Church-free religion was also to be shaped by the principles of the nascent Enlightenment, that is, essentially deistic, without revelation or miracles, without incarnation or resurrection.

But the process of secularising the now enlightened religion didn't stop there. By justifying deadly violence through God, the Churches had also discredited Him. Consequently, the French atheists proposed the project of a peaceful world entirely without God.

Christianity, initially championed by a single Church and later shaped by various denominations, gradually lost its social standing and credibility among the people. The traditional religious affiliation of subjects to the rulers' religion—based on the principle of „cuius regio, eius et religio“ (whose realm, his religion)—was gradually replaced by the freedom to choose one's own denomination/religion. The specific expression of Christian faith was no longer a matter of fate, but of choice. Thanks to guaranteed religious freedom, individuals could also choose a secular or even atheistic option. This freedom of choice increased as social control and the underlying cultural assumptions surrounding it weakened.

What shapes the process of option

The emergence of multiple options and thus the pluralisation of worldviews, leads to the next important question: How do people arrive at their choice of one of these options? What motivates them to choose the religious option, to „opt in“ for the first time or again in the sense of conversion, or to “opt out” by leaving a Church? How does the choice of a secular option come about? And are both options truly compelling alternatives? Is every secular option therefore incompatible with religion, with Christian faith? Or is there a secularity that is perfectly compatible with religion? Perhaps even one that springs from that very Christian option whose opposite it seems to be at first glance? Should there therefore²¹ be not only multiple modernities, but also multiple secularities? And going even further: Could a truly secular culture not be a prerequisite for an authentic faith?²² Some of these questions, however, already extend into the second, more theological reflection. I will take this into the next section.

Here, we will simply explore the question of how the choice between the secular and religious options—that is, between a godless and a godly one—comes about. Hans Joas has offered some helpful insights on this topic.²³ He proposed developing a political sociology of religion.²⁴ Joas fundamentally criticizes the secularisation thesis. He sees it as linked to dangerous process categories and, instead of a model of decline, proposes a history of the constant sacralisation and desacralisation of values.²⁵ Joas emphasizes that modernity is characterised not by disenchantment, nor by re-enchantment, but by continuous „experiences of self-transcendence“. Religion does not necessarily lose its significance; rather, an „open field of competing meanings“ emerges. This, however, directly contradicts the notion of a linear secularisation process.

Hans Joas provides examples of how the selection of available meanings can occur in practice, examples to which I refer here and which I supplement with my own. For instance, the British working class did not break away from the Church, aswas the case in Protestant Germany or Austro-Marxist Austria²⁶. The politically relevant social question could therefore be a driving force for the secularisation of a large number of people – but it didn't have to be. The relationship of the Christian Churches to the labour movement varied. Today, the relationship of Christian Churches to women and thus to the struggle for gender equality, presents a significant challenge.

The connection between religion and nationalism has played and continues to play, a role.²⁷ In Orthodox-influenced cultures of Europe, the dominant Churches, based solely on the principle of „canonical territory“, are a key element of national self-confidence. This can partly explain why Eastern European countries have an above-average attachment to Christianity and their Orthodox Churches.²⁸ Another form of connection between nationalism and religion can be observed in the USA today. The MAGA movement is closely linked to evangelical movements; both clearly support each other. A similarly intertwined form of religious politics exists within the Catholic neo-integralism movement in the USA.²⁹

In general, the historically developed denominational character of a country's culture plays a lasting role, especially in Europe. Striking regional differences become apparent. The populations of the Protestant North are considerably more inclined towards the secular option than those of the Catholic South of Europe. This may also be related to the fact that Protestantism has highly individualised the Christian faith, thereby relativising the exchange with a Church. Luther ultimately sought a merciful God for himself, without any mediation of a Church. Church attendance among members of the Churches of the Reformation is still significantly lower than among members of any Catholic Church, although some Catholic regions are now becoming more „protestant“ in that they are approaching the low attendance figures of the Protestant Churches. Nevertheless, the inclination towards the Christian option remains considerably stronger in Poland, Croatia, Italy, Spain and Malta than in the Scandinavian countries with a Protestant state Church, such as Norway, Denmark, Sweden and Finland. Does maintaining a Christian faith option in today's societies therefore require strong, supportive communities and exchange with them? Does this mean that Catholicism has a better chance than religiously individualistic Protestantism?

According to Hans Joas, the highly varied relationship between Church and state in different countries is also significant. It is an important aspect of his political sociology of religion.³⁰ In the communist countries of Eastern Europe, at least until the Helsinki Accords (1975), there was aggressive persecution of Churches, priests, members of religious orders and practicing believers. Such a situation made a Christian option difficult, drove many believers underground and cut many Church members off from the supportive protection of a Church community. To prevent the population from celebrating life-changing rituals in their traditional Church form, distinct atheistic life-changing rituals (rites de passage) were composed, strikingly similar to Church rituals.³¹

The relationship between Church and state in Russia remains unique to this day. It is described as a symphony between the two „players“; they resonate together. This is evident, for example, in the Russian Federation's war against neighbouring Ukraine. Patriarch Kirill I of the Russian Orthodox Church grants full religious legitimation to this war of aggression, which violates international law, even though this flagrantly contradicts his prophetic mission derived from the Gospel. It is possible that this will damage the Russian Orthodox Church in a similar way to how it damaged the younger denominations in Europe intertwined with the Thirty Years' War.

In the USA, the relationship between Church and state has been one of benevolent separation since its founding, which explains why, despite being a „modern“ country, it has not been secularised. The current increase in the number of „Nones“ is therefore probably not a case of making up for lost time with secularisation based on the formula „the more modern, the more secular“. Rather, this increase is more likely an indication that Democrats are demonstratively distancing themselves from the co-opting of fundamentalist religion by political populists. According to the renowned Pew Research Centre, only a small proportion of Nones are agnostic or atheist. They belong, rather, to that group which is growing in times of religious pluralism, where options, because they are selectable, are also open to question: the seekers. These form the counterpart to the dwellers, who were the norm in pre-pluralistic times.³² The French sociologist of religion Danièle Hervieu-Léger calls these two types „pelerins“, pilgrims and „converts“, converts.³³ Such terms suggest that the duality of religious and secular options makes sense, but can be further differentiated. It makes sense because many recent studies, like my own, which are based on the sociology of knowledge, do not start from religious or secular dimensions. Rather, the perspective derives from a sociology of knowledge. It encompasses the scope of reality, that is, the range of transcendence that someone consciously „inhabits“ in light of their finitude and transience and then structures in a religious or secular way. This is close to Charles Taylor's concept of „immanent framing“. From this, the two basic types of „mortals“ and „immortals“ that I have developed in my studies emerge.³⁴

Based on the religious-ecclesiastical dimension, i. e., the structure of “inhabited” reality, I was then able to statistically distinguish secularists, sceptics, religious people and Churchgoers from one another with the help of many individual items.³⁵

Do religious people live happier lives…?

In apologetic discussions about religion, the question of the benefits of religiosity repeatedly arises: Do believers live happier lives than non-believers, religious people happier lives than irreligious people? Or, in my terms: Do „mortals“ live other, better lives than „immortals“?

This question has been empirically investigated for decades. However, the results of studies on religious and secular ethics are far less clear-cut than popular assumptions would suggest: „The statistical results show that there is no religious or secular ethic that consistently has positive effects on happiness and health at the individual and social levels.“³⁶ Thus, the widespread thesis that religious people are inherently happier or morally superior is not empirically tenable. If positive effects of a religious lifestyle do occur, they only do so under certain conditions, such as high levels of education or strong social integration. In secular societies, on the other hand, secular people often show higher life satisfaction than religious people. Pope Francis even noted in his encyclical Fratelli tutti (2020): „Paradoxically, sometimes those who consider themselves unbelievers can fulfil God's will better than believers.“ (FT 74) Empirical studies also indicate that the decisive factor is not faith itself, but rather the cultural context in which people live.³⁷ The more secular cultures of Scandinavia have long been among the happiest populations of the world.³⁸

The relationship between religiosity and happiness is demonstrably „non-linear and non-universal“. ³⁹ Religious people are not inherently happier; rather, the effect depends on whether the respective society supports religious or secular lifestyles. This confirms the so-called „contextual hypothesis“ of the sociology of religion: people are most satisfied when their lifestyle—religious or secular—is culturally resonant.

The question of moral behaviour reveals a similar picture. As early as the 1960s, Max Horkheimer argued that moral action is not exclusively religiously grounded: „Those who do not believe in God still yearn for justice.“⁴⁰ Modern empirical studies confirm this: Religious people do not act more morally, but rather differently—more group-oriented, while secular people argue more universalistically. Furthermore, different moral issues take centre stage. Religious people tend to favour a „womb to tomb“ morality, meaning abortion, euthanasia and the protection of life at all stages. Secular people, on the other hand, tend to advocate principles of social justice and global responsibility. Empirical evidence does not support a moral superiority of either group.

Charles Taylor points out that people living in the „immanent frame“—that is, in a secular way of life—do not necessarily live in a deficient state. The immanent frame is „not necessarily a loss, but a new way of experiencing abundance“⁴¹. This makes it clear: secularism is not a model of deficiency, but an alternative form of a fulfilling life.

Overall, research shows that there is no empirical evidence that religious people generally live happier, more satisfied, or morally superior lives than secular people. Crucial factors are social integration, education, cultural resonance and individual lifestyle—not faith itself.

1. Among the contemporary proponents of the secularisation hypothesis is Jörg Stolz, who, based on large -scale datasets, demonstrates that a stable trend of declining religiosity can be observed in many Western societies: “The data show a long-term trend of declining religiosity in many modern countries” ( Stolz, Jörg: The Future of Religion, Zürich 2021,  42). Steve Bruce also adheres to a classic modernisation thesis and states pointedly: “Modernisation inevitably undermines the social significance of religion” (Bruce, Steve: Secularisation, Oxford 2011,  2) - The empirically oriented sociology of religion by Pippa Norris and Ronald Inglehart supports the secularisation thesis by linking religious decline with increasing existential security: „The publics of more secure societies have become less religious” (Norris, Pippa/Inglehart, Ronald: Sacred and Secular, Cambridge 2004,  3) David Voas, in turn, describes religious change as generational replacement: “Religious decline is a gradual process of generational replacement” (Voas, David: The Continuing Secular Transition, in: Nature Human Behaviour 2 (2018)  2) Linda Woodhead diagnoses a long-term institutional decline in Great Britain: „Institutional Christianity in Britain is in long-term decline“ (Woodhead, Linda: That Was the Church That Was. How the Church of England Lost the English People, London 2016, 12).

2. The latest Protestant Church membership survey is frequently cited: Evangelical Church in Germany (ed.): How do you feel about the Church? On the significance of the Church in society. Sixth Church Membership Survey (KMU), Hanover 2023. Data from the study „What does Austria believe?“ are also used. Polak, Regina/Dolezal, Martin/Huber, Stefan/Müller, Wolfgang: What does Austria believe? Religiosity, spirituality and Church affiliation in the 21st century, Wien 2018.

3. „In this regard, the empirical data is unequivocal, so that one can speak of 'overwhelming evidence' that not only relates to the area of institutionalised religion and its forms of practice, but leads to the very heart of faith. Alongside a dramatic decline in weekly Church attendance (among Catholics in Germany from around 50 percent in 1950 to under 6 percent in 2022), there is a erosion of belief in God or indifference towards core questions of faith“. https://www.kathpress.at/goto/archiv/2573898/soziologe-kirchen-bleiben-in-saekularer-gesellschaft-traeger-von-werten (April 26, 2026)

4. „Nones are adults who describe their religious identity as atheist, agnostic, or 'nothing in particular'.“ Pew Research Center: The Rise of the Nones, Washington DC 2012, 7.

5. Halik, Tomáš: Patience with God. The story of Zacchaeus today, Freiburg 2010, 25-33.

6. „Apatheism is the attitude of not caring whether God exists.“ Martin, Michael: Apatheism: The Unbelief in God, in: Philosophy Now 2002, 34.

7. „Religious indifference refers to an attitude of lack of ‑interest in religion.” Pickel, Gert: Sociology of Religion, Wiesbaden 2011, 153-160, here 154.

8. https://www.kathpress.at/goto/archiv/2573898/soziologe-kirchen-bleiben-in-saekularer-gesellschaft-traeger-von-werten (25. 4. 2026)

9. Critics of the secularisation thesis point to the persistence, transformation, or return of religious forms of expression. Jürgen Habermas emphasizes the normative significance of religious resources in modern societies: „Modern society lives on normative resources that it cannot itself generate“ (Habermas, Jürgen: Between Naturalism and Religion, Frankfurt a. M. 2005).  119). José Casanova contradicts the privatisation thesis and argues for a public return of religious actors: „Religion is deprivatising and entering the public sphere” (Casanova, José: Public Religions in the Modern World, Chicago 1994, 5). Karl Gabriel, on the other hand, does not see religious individualisation as an indicator of religious decline: “Religious individualisation is not an indicator of the decline of religion“ (Gabriel, Karl: Religion between Tradition and Modernity, Freiburg 1992,  57). Danièle Hervieu-Léger interprets religion as a form of cultural memory that persists even in secular contexts: „Religion survives as a chain of memory even in secular societies” (Hervieu-Léger, Danièle: Religion as a Chain of Memory, New Brunswick 2000, 125). Talal Asad criticizes secularisation as a political and cultural formation: “The secular is not the absence of religion but a modern political arrangement.” Asad, Talal: Formations of the Secular, Stanford 2003, 16.

10. „We live in a Secular Age, but not in an age without religion.” Taylor, Charles: A Secular Age, Cambridge 2007, 3.

11. Joas understands religion as a contingent form of expression for creative self-transcendence. This is possible even in a Secular Age, but not necessary. Joas, Hans: The Origin of Values, Frankfurt 1997, 23–45.

12. „The immanent frame is not necessarily a closed one.“ Taylor, Charles: A Secular Age. Cambridge 2007, 542.

13. „Believers and unbelievers alike inhabit the same immanent frame, but they live it differently. ” Taylor, Charles: A Secular Age, Cambridge 2007, 549–550.

14. Ibid., 768.

15. Wolfinger, Kay/Wolf, Klaus: Return of Religion – passé? Christian Traces in Contemporary Literature and Film, Regensburg 2026.

16. Art is not merely a pretty add-on – it is the umbilical cord that connects us to the divine, it guarantees our humanity; but only as long as it remains at the center of our lives. (Nikolaus Harnoncourt, 1929-2016) – Harnoncourt, Nikolaus: Interview quote, in: Archdiocese of Wien, „Conductor Nikolaus Harnoncourt has died”, March 6, 2016.

17. This shift is not only possible, but structurally typical of the „Secular Age. ”Taylor speaks of a „fragility of all positions” and a „cross-pressure situation” in which both believers and non-believers live: „We are all cross-pressured between the draw of transcendence and the pull of immanent flourishing. ” Charles Taylor: A Secular Age Cambridge, MA 2007, 595.

18. Zulehner: Hope in a tumbling world, 33-58.

19. Leppin, Volker: Traces of God. Christian Europe before its disenchantment, Freiburg 2026.

20. Volkmar, Christoph: Catholic Reform in the Age of Luther. Duke George of Saxony and the Church, 1488–1525, Leiden/Boston 2018.

21. „Secularity is not a state, but a social mode of distinction” (Wohlrab-Sahr, Monika/Burchardt, Marian: Multiple Secularities, Berlin 2021, 22). Marian Burchardt adds: “Secularity takes different shapes across global contexts (Burchardt, Marian: Regulating Difference, New York 2020, 7).

22. Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na ' im emphasizes the productive role of secular orders for religious freedom: „A secular state is necessary for Muslims to live their faith authentically.” An-Na ' im, Abdullahi Ahmed: Islam and the Secular State, Cambridge 2008, 1. And regarding Christianity: Ernst Bloch understands atheism as the locus of a purified, illusion-free hope. His famous statement, „Only an atheist can be a good Christian“ (Bloch, Ernst: Atheism in Christianity. Frankfurt 1968, 15), succinctly captures the paradoxical insight that atheism does not destroy religious expectations, but rather radicalizes them.

23. Joas, Hans: Faith as an Option. Future Possibilities of Christianity, Freiburg i.  Br. 2012, 28. – Idem: The Power of the Sacred. An Alternative to the History of Disenchantment, Berlin 2017, 15.

24. My attempt to explain the emergence of a secular option from the religious-political turmoil is a modest contribution to this.

25. In a lecture at the Pedagogical Values Conference in Salzburg, Hans Joas distinguished between „values, norms and desires. Norms are binding and restrict possible actions, while values are attractive and open up new possibilities for action. Values are 'emotionally charged ideas of what is desirable'. They arise particularly in experiences of self-transcendence, such as community, enthusiasm, or extreme experiences like suffering and fear“. https://redaktion.kathpress.at/action/kpprod/download?&p=19184&c=428f (June 24, 2026)

26. Zulehner, Paul M.: Church and Austro-Marxism. A study on Church, State and Society, Wien 1967.

27. Máté-Tóth András: Wounded Identity in East Central Europe, Göttingen 2019.

28. This is demonstrated by the second Study AUFBRUCH” for example, for Serbia. The corresponding chapter is entitled „The End of Secularism – The Rise of Nationalism.” Zulehner, Paul M. /Tomka, Miklós/Naletova, Inna: Religions and Churches in East (Central) Europe. Developments after the Fall of the Wall, Ostfildern 2008, 155–159.

29. Neo-integralism is related to Augustine's two-kingdoms doctrine. This North African Church Father distinguished between a civitas Dei, permeated by love of neighbour and a civitas terrena, tolerated by God for the sake of order in this world, characterised by self-love. Augustine assumed that both kingdoms would follow one another, meaning that the civitas Dei would eventually replace the civitas terrena at the end of time. Neo-integralists, however, see the Kingdom of God as coming now; more precisely, they consider it their task to establish this end-times state, if necessary by military means. Some, like the tech billionaire Peter Thiel, refer to the doctrine of the Antichrist and the final battle of Armageddon recounted in the Book of Revelation (Ἁ ρμαγεδών: Revelation 16:12-16).

30. Joas, Hans: Is secularisation unstoppable? In: Tück, Jan Heiner: Return of secularisation? The debate about religious indifference, Freiburg 2026, 18.

31. Marakhovska, Lida: The resistance of priests and laypeople to the attitude of the Russian Orthodox Church leadership regarding communist religious and Church policy in the 1960s-1980s, Dissertation, Wien 2025.

32. Roof, Wade Clark: Spiritual Marketplace. Baby Boomers and the Remaking of American Religion, Princeton 1999. – Id.: A Generation of Seekers. The Spiritual Journeys of the Baby Boom Generation, San Francisco 1993.

33. Hervieu-Léger, Danièle: Religion as a Chain of Memory, New Brunswick 2000, 124. - Item: Pilgrimage in Modernity: A Sociological Approach, in: Religion 23 (1993), 91–105. – Also Hervieu ‑Léger, Danièle/Willaime, Jean-Paul (eds.): La religion en mouvement. Le pèlerin et le converti, Paris 1999.

34. Zulehner, Paul M.: So that heaven may come to earth. At least in traces. Living humanely amidst ideological diversity, Ostfildern 2020.

35. Zulehner, Transformation, 239-242.

36. Zagonari, Fabio: Both religious and secular ethics to achieve both happiness and health, in: PLoS One, 19 (4), 2024.

37. AaO.

38. https://www.worldhappiness.report/ (as of July 31, 2026)

39. Becchetti, Leonardo: Happiness, religiosity and rationality: going deeper into the utility function, In: International Review of Economics, 2025.

40. Horkheimer, Max: On the Critique of Instrumental Reason. Frankfurt a. M. 1967, 108–110.

41. Taylor, Charles: A Secular Age. Cambridge, MA 2007, 542.

Transition

I will take the following takeaways from the discussion in social sciences into my next section:

Instead of interpreting socio-religious developments in Europe with the formula „the more modern, the more secular“, implying an irreversible modernisation across the globe and thus an equally irreversible secularisation, I align myself with those who posit multiple options, namely at least a newly emerging secular one and an (old) religious one. They address the question of how the choice between one option and the other comes about. Also relevant to the following considerations is Peter L. Berger's sociological question of knowledge: How is extrapersonal ideological pluralism reflected in the consciousness of society's members and how do people cope with this intrapersonal tension?

Finally, the concluding section, focusing on pastoral practice, can address the question of whether and how Christian Churches, whose mission is to hold the option of faith open to people worldwide and to support those who have chosen to believe, could be effective. It can also consider the individual question of how one can be a devout Christian in a secular age.

Before that, however, I will turn to the „second”, the theological reflection on the data/developments and their initial social scientific interpretation.

Part 3: Philosophical and theological interpretations of the development

The starting point for the reflection now shifts. Theology views the world and humanity from the perspective of God, more precisely, from his (self-)revelation. History then becomes salvation history. And this is true from the very beginning of history to its end. World history and salvation history are inextricably intertwined. This involves the interplay between God's ever-prevenient grace and human freedom: a dialectic that even the best theology ultimately cannot explain.¹ The term of a „natural history“ that is not simultaneously salvation history means, theologically speaking, nothing more and nothing less than that God's saving work is „unowed“, springing from the freedom of his incomprehensible love (Wisdom 11:24-26).²

But what does it mean theologically – that is, from the perspective of the self-revealing God, as told in biblical writings and the living Church tradition and as also proclaimed by other religions – if humanity, as the secularizers emphasize, no longer perceives this action of God or denies it in principle?

Further question: How does God work in his world to bring his creation and thus all of humanity, to his goal when humanity, or many within it, refuse to acknowledge him or deny him altogether? Mystics call God's goal with creation „oneing“, the union of God with his creation. Christians believe that God has already begun to reach this goal „end-times“ (1 Corinthians 10:11; also Gaudium et spes 48) in one of us, Jesus, the Christ. This magnificent eschatological vision is hinted at in the liturgical hymn from early Christianity, which is included in Paul's Epistle to the Colossians:

He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation;
for in him all things in heaven and on earth were created, things visible and invisible, whether thrones or dominions or rulers or powers—all things have been created through him and for him.
He himself is before all things and in him all things hold together.
He is the head of the body, the church; he is the beginning, the firstborn from the dead, so that he might come to have first place in everything.
For in him all the fullness of God was pleased to dwell,
and through him God was pleased to reconcile to himself all things, whether on earth or in heaven, by making peace through the blood of his cross.
(Colossians 1:15-50)

In short: What is the theological significance of the current development of Christian-influenced religion and its Churches, which is controversially discussed under the ambiguous term secularisation? A process that is supposedly unstoppable and irreversible, or which some even want to occur and be promoted: A scholarly struggle for an appropriate and appreciative interpretation can thus become a religious-political battle.

What is needed, therefore, is a kind of „theology of secularisation“, whatever that may mean. That is, a theology that inquires into the presence of God in a world that claims God is dead or toward which many remain indifferent. Is God still present and effective, yet invisible, „hidden“, as it were? Are there such things as God's hiding places? And if so, what are his preferred hiding places? The gifted Protestant pastor and poet Kurt Marti has captured such questions in poetic language:

Great God:
closer to us than skin or carotid artery, smaller than heart muscle or diaphragm; often: too close, too small – why seek you? We: / your hiding places

1. Rome has not made a dogmatic decision in the dispute over grace between Dominicans and Jesuits. Both positions may be held; mutual condemnations are forbidden. Paul V, Decree of the Congregatio de auxiliis, 160.

2. Henri de Lubac and Karl Rahner both argue against a two-tiered theology that understands nature and grace as two separate levels. De Lubac emphasizes that there is „no pure nature“ because humankind carries within it from the beginning a „natural longing to behold God“ (de Lubac, Henri: Surnaturel, Paris 1946, 463; de Lubac, Henri: Le mystère du surnaturel, Paris 1965, 113). For him, nature is real, but never complete; it is always already ordered toward its supernatural fulfilment. Rahner formulates the same fundamental intuition in transcendental language. For him, humankind is „the essence of the supernatural existential“, thus always already determined by God's self-communication (Rahner, Karl: Schriften zur Theologie II, Einsiedeln 1963, 88). Grace is therefore not an external addition, but rather „God's self-communication“ as the fundamental possibility of human existence (Rahner, Karl: Grundkurs des Glaubens, Freiburg 1976, 126). Both theologians thus reject a two-tiered theology: nature and grace are distinct, but not separate; from the beginning, humanity is oriented towards God without its nature being negated or swallowed up.

Between secularism and secularity

Two terms have been coined to describe the difference between benevolent interpretation and religious-political combat, which I will use in the following: secularity and secularism.¹

In my following reflections, I refer to secularity, in terms of both intention and outcome, as „benign secularisation“ and secularism as „malignant secularisation.“² Secularity then appears positive. It is an achievement of the development of human freedom, open to the question of God, or more precisely, to his revealing actions. Secularism, on the other hand, stands for the decline or even attempts to eradicate religion, especially Christianity and thus the belief in God.

The often aggressively presented secularism has likely contributed to believers tending to view the „secular option“ of non-belief in a morally negative light.³ This devaluation may also have been exacerbated by the fact that the mere existence of the non-believing option casts doubt on the belief option itself. Unquestioned tradition had become a challenge, a choice that had to be made. However, when an alternative is dismissed as morally reprehensible, it can lose its threatening aspect to one's own position. Whereas previously a citizen's religion was fatefully assigned to them, now they must „take a stand“. The development has progressed „from fate to choice“ (Peter L. Berger).

However, a devaluation of the secular option on theological grounds is by no means inevitable. There are prominent philosophers, theologians and mystics who even value „secularity“ as a noble fruit of religion, especially in its Christian form. Thus, while secularism may prove incompatible with faith, secularism is generally considered compatible. Believers often respond to proponents of secularism with combative apologetics to justify their religious choice, while they respond to those of secularism with inquisitive dialogue. This occurs with the shared goal of serving the well-being of the world and all people on the basis of a moral universalism.

Secularism

The pastor's son Friedrich Nietzsche is arguably the most influential prophet of secularism in our time. For him, it is a defining characteristic of our age that it is in the process of ridding itself of God. In Nietzsche's work, what has been happening since the devastation of European cultures in the Thirty Years' War reaches its climax. While Voltaire, with his battle cry “Écrasez l'infâme !“ (Crush the infamy!), demanded the extermination of the powerful Catholic Church in France, later—as already mentioned above—French atheists advocated for a peaceful and just world entirely without God.

In his widely read work „Die Fröhliche Wissenschaft“⁴ Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) vividly describes the killing of God. The „madman“ (der tolle Mensch) arrives in a marketplace. He carries a lantern. He loudly calls out to those around him: „I am seeking God.“ And then comes the poignant confession of guilt:

God is dead! God remains dead! And we have killed him! How shall we comfort ourselves, the murderers of all murderers? The holiest and most powerful thing the world has ever possessed has bled to death beneath our knives—who will wipe this blood from us? With what water could we cleanse ourselves? What atonement rites, what sacred games will we have to invent? Is not the magnitude of this deed too great for us? Must we not ourselves become gods, just to appear worthy of it?

The academic community has engaged in a lively debate about Nietzsche's narrative before the killing of God. Initially, his unmistakable intervention was met with a combative and dismissive reception among philosophers and theologians. The pastor's son was denounced as the Antichrist. However, voices soon emerged praising him as an eloquent prophet of modernity, one who brought to light what was happening beneath the surface of European culture. He also rightly protested against a moralising and world-denying Christianity. Here is a brief glimpse into this ambivalent reception of Nietzsche.

The Antichrist

the dismissive interpretation, Nietzsche is ‑a fundamental enemy of Christianity, the „Anti-Christ“⁵ who „finally shatters“ the Christian order of history⁶. He considers the Christian teaching of humanity's relationship to God, its dependence on grace and salvation⁷, to be life-denying and decadent. He negates the Christian self-interpretation of humanity, which is based on trust, grace and faith, thus labelling him an „enemy of faith.“ ⁸

Nietzsche's ideal image of humanity is the Übermensch, who in freedom takes „the place of God“.⁹ There can be no God in order for humanity to be free: otherwise, free self-determination cannot be achieved.¹⁰ He considers Christian morality misguided. He perverts the concepts of love of neighbour and self-sacrifice into their opposites.¹¹ He particularly opposes the virtue of humility.¹²

Nietzsche's radical critics never fail to point out the supposedly fatal consequences of a cultural loss of God. They consider a world without God to be ultimately threatened and inhumane. They argue that no one would be morally opposed if humanity, taking God's place¹³, were to plunder planet Earth and if power were to be unleashed without restraint. Wars, climate emergencies and the displacement of people serve as indicators, for them, that the world and especially its most vulnerable members, are not doing well. Some Nietzsche critics even link the death of God to the impending death of humanity.¹⁴

The Prophet of Modern Times

Nietzsche was not only condemned as the Antichrist. Others¹⁵ honoured him as a „prophet of modernity“. Nietzsche was considered the most insightful diagnostician of the modern crisis of meaning. With the famous scene of the „madman“ in “Die Fröhliche Wissenschaft” – „We have killed him, you and I!“ – Nietzsche not only formulated a critique of religion but also laid bare the fundamental intellectual situation of Europe. Modernity, he argued, thrives „on a profound alienation from God that no longer understands itself“. It is precisely this that makes Nietzsche the „prophet of an era that no longer perceives its own abysses“. His critique exposes the bourgeois ‑moralising Christianity of modernity and consequently compels theology to rediscover its lost eschatological tension.¹⁶

Nietzsche has even been called an „unwilling theologian“. His critique, it is argued, does not target the Gospel itself, but rather its life-denying distortions in modern asceticism. Nietzsche thus becomes a touchstone, pointing Christianity back to its original, life-affirming dynamism. When Nietzsche writes, „I condemn Christianity; I level against the Christian Church the most terrible of all accusations”¹⁷, this is not an attack on Christ, but on a Christianity that has lost its original vitality. Nietzsche's critique thus becomes an „unwilling service to Christianity“, forcing theology to understand Christ not as the antithesis of life, but as its radical affirmation.¹⁸

Nietzsche's atheism is assigned a decidedly helpful theological role. In Nietzsche's view, it is not merely a negation of God that is perceived, but rather he poses the „question of God in the mode of negation”¹⁹. The atheist is not the enemy of God, but rather the one who takes the question of God radically seriously by thinking it through to the very edge of nothingness. Thus, atheism becomes a place of purification for corrupted religious developments: „In atheism, the question of God can attain a purity that often remains hidden from religious self-understanding.“²⁰ Nothingness is that borderland in which the question of God originally arises: „Nothingness is not merely emptiness, but the place where the mystery of being unfolds.“²¹„In nothingness, man is thrown back upon the question that transcends himself.“²² „Nothingness is the space in which God does not appear as an object, but rather withdraws as origin.“²³ This radicalizes the basic intuition of modern distance from God: it is now not the opposite of closeness to God, but its purest form.

Secularity

In interpreting the alienation from God in our time, which is vaguely termed the modern age²⁴, philosophers and mystics delve deeper. In doing so, the focus shifts. It is no longer about what people do with God. Rather, the focus shifts to how God himself relates to his creation. God is distant not because people kill him, but because, although God creates the world, sustains it in a „creatio continua“²⁵ and develops it evolutionarily with the spirit of his love (Teilhard de Chardin), he must remain hidden in his overflowing abundance despite his continuous creative presence and as a hidden God, he cannot be „killed“. God's presence is precisely distinguished by its hiddenness.

The supposed death of God now paradoxically proves to be a moment in the nature of God's presence and influence in the history of his world. God does not appear with visible power, but works in the weakness²⁶ of hiddenness. With love instead of violence.

In the following, I will attempt to illustrate this position using the example of a contemporary philosopher as well as outstanding mystics of European culture.

Contemporary Philosophy

Jan-Luc Marion (born 1946) is considered one of the French neo-phenomenologists. His work is characterised by his understanding of the process of cognition, particularly of a reality that transcends earthly spacetime, which is what we call God. Marion's work also seeks to philosophically explore whether a revelation of God is even conceivable. In his search for an answer, he develops existing epistemological frameworks of the time²⁷; moreover, he introduces a crucial shift in perspective. The prevailing frameworks of the time, albeit in varying ways, were conceived from a human perspective.

Jean-Luc Marion's reflections, however, do not begin with human understanding, but rather with God's self-revelation. He asks whether and how such a revelation of God is possible from a philosophical perspective and if so, how it unfolds. He affirms its possibility. However, this revelation does not originate from humanity and the intuition of its understanding, but comes „from elsewhere“, as the title of his outline for a phenomenology of revelation suggests.²⁸ Revelation is then an event that seizes a person within an event as a phenomenon and gives itself to them. The phenomenon of „God“, however, is characterised by its maximal „saturation“. It appears in such an abundance that it cannot be grasped or comprehended by humans. Therefore, humans can only bear witness to this event coming from elsewhere, without comprehending it. Because God gives himself in an incomprehensible abundance, he remains inaccessible and beyond the reach of understanding. God is simultaneously given and withdrawn, hidden, concealed.

Jean-Luc Marion develops this fundamental concept along the lines of the Christian doctrine of the Trinity. For him, Jesus, the Christ, becomes what he²⁹ calls an icon in his phenomenological approach. For Marion, the icon is not an image that makes something visible, but a phenomenon that reverses the gaze: the viewer does not see, but is seen. Jesus is, for Marion, the icon par excellence because in him God's self-revelation occurs without God becoming a comprehensible object of human understanding.

The icon reveals the invisible as invisible. Consequently, his question is: How does God appear in the Son without becoming visible? This is where Jesus' parables and miracles come into play. Parables are „iconic speech“. Miracles, in turn, are the physical form of the icon; they are „iconic actions“. They reveal God as Father in a way that does not infringe upon human freedom but liberates it. Parables are the linguistic, miracles the physical revelation. In both modes of appearance, Jesus becomes the icon of the Father, the personal revelation: He reveals God not by making him visible, but by allowing him to appear as an abundance. Finally, the resurrection testifies to Jesus as the inner-Trinitarian Son. It is the moment when it becomes clear that Jesus not only speaks of God but comes from God.

As much as God reveals himself in his own image („he is the image of the invisible God”: Colossians 1:15): Here too, it is true that in the Son, the fullness of God is present and revealed, but ultimately still remains incomprehensible. God reveals himself in the kenosis³⁰ of Jesus' love, even unto death, but not in freedom-robbing power.³¹

An indispensable aspect of revelation is its acceptance by humankind. For this purpose, God bestows upon humanity the gift of the Holy Spirit, who—like the Father—is invisible. God, as Karl Rahner formulated it, always anticipates our actions with his grace. God himself grants the gracious possibility of freely receiving him as a gift and bearing witness to him, allowing oneself to be touched without comprehending.

This resolves the tension that led Nietzsche to proclaim the death of God. For Nietzsche, God—at least as Christianity conceived him in his time—and human freedom were incompatible. In Marion's work, however, God reveals himself to humanity in abundance, which makes him perceptible and attestable, but not comprehensible. By being present and effective in the kenosis of love, yet remaining elusive in his abundance, God opens a space of global responsibility and freedom for humanity.

A God who gives himself in abundance and thereby remains incomprehensible creates that „worldly“, „secular“ space in which humanity can be free and responsible for the world. Christian revelatory thought and secularism prove to be compatible. It can be formulated pointedly: „Secularisation is the fulfilment of the Christian message“ (Gianni Vattimo).³² Christianity contains within itself a dynamic that enables „de-divine“ the world, freedom, relativizes authorities and empowers humanity. It is precisely this dynamic of Christianity that has historically triggered the ongoing process of the benign „secularisation“. Such „secularisation“ is not a betrayal of Christianity, but its ultimate consequence. “Secularisation is not the fall from Christianity, but its fruit“ (Friedrich Gogarten). The Gospel releases³³ humanity into maturity; God's self-withdrawal creates the space for human freedom. This freedom, embracing responsibility for the world, does not lead to an inhumane world, as some fear. Rather, it is a world in which responsibility is primarily taken for the gifts of others.³⁴

Mystics

Similar themes regarding the relationship between the incomprehensible God and humanity, as found in contemporary philosophy, can be found in the lived and suffered experiences of Christian mystics. I will select four mystics each as examples: Meister Eckhart (1260-1328), John of the Cross (1542-1591), Teresa of Calcutta (1910-2003) and finally Simone Weil (1909-1943), who was both a philosopher and a mystic. Teresa of Ávila (1515-1582) will also be considered.

Meister Eckhart

The Dominican friar Meister Eckhart repeatedly clashed with higher Church authorities. He was prosecuted, for example, for his teaching that the „ground of the soul“ of man was not created by God like all other creatures, but was itself divine and uncreated. According to this doctrine, the divine is always directly present in the ground of the soul.

Three centuries later, Teresa of Ávila (1515-1582) taught more or less the same thing in her work „The Inner Castle“. The soul consists of several mansions. In the innermost one dwells God, hidden within every person. Even in atheists.³⁵

Regarding the relationship between humans and God, the medieval writer Meister Eckhart wrote: „God is a God of hiddenness.”³⁶ Here is a longer quote from Meister Eckhart on this topic:

The prophet says: 'Truly, you are a God of hiddenness. '
Therefore, God requires a devout heart, free from all things. For where this heart is devout, there God must necessarily be present with his full divinity. The more a person empties himself of all things, the more God is revealed in him.

Man should be so free that he is moved neither by joy nor by sorrow,
neither by honour nor by disgrace, neither by gain nor by loss.

For as long as a person is still moved by something, he is not free.
And as long as he is not free, God cannot work in him.

God is a God of hiddenness and therefore he desires a heart
that is hidden from all creatures and from himself.

In this hidden depth, God works without ceasing.
And the deeper a person delves into this depth, the more they lose themselves and find God.

Therefore, Meister Eckhart says:
Man should become so empty that he is a place
in which God can work as he wills,
and that man neither adds to it nor takes away from it.

For where man wants something, God does not want it;
where man wants nothing, God wants everything.

Thus, true knowledge of God is not in the image,
not in the concept, not in the feeling,
but in the bare, silent, hidden ground
where God reveals himself
by concealing himself. ³⁷

Is a secular world, devoid of all images of God and all search for God, an ideal environment for God's work? Is the atheist, in the spiritual master's sense, „ledig” (unmarried)? „For Eckhart, the hiddenness of God is not a deficiency, but rather the condition for the birth of God within humanity“ (Dietmar Mieth).³⁸ Anthropologically speaking, this distance from God is the space in which humanity becomes free of itself in order to receive God“. Eckhart's discourse on the distance from God belongs to the context of his negative theology.³⁹ Humanity must „dis-self“ so that God can be born within it: „Eckhart's mysticism is a mysticism of dis-self, in which God only appears where humanity disappears.“⁴⁰

John of the Cross

John of the Cross was Spanish. He belonged to the Discalced Carmelite Order of the Franciscan family and is venerated as a Doctor of the Church. The order followed the inspirations of the great Teresa of Ávila (1515-1582).

Conflicts arose with the reform-resistant main order. John was imprisoned in an order prison in Toledo. During this dark time for him, he composed magnificent spiritual poems. He was familiar with the writings of the Sufi Ibn ʿAbbād (1332–1390). Thus, imagery from the Islamic world found its way into his poems, for example, into the miraculous poem „Llama de amor viva“ (Living Flame of Love), for which he himself wrote a detailed commentary.⁴¹

John of the Cross shared with the Sufis the experience of the „dark night“ or the „night of faith.“⁴² This refers to something that centuries later would appear not mystically, but phenomenologically in the work of Jean-Luc Marion: „For God withdraws the light from the soul and leaves it in darkness“. – „In this night, the soul feels that God has forsaken it.“⁴³ In such a night, there are no spiritual consolations; prayer, sacraments, or even meditation offer no strength. Such people feel abandoned by God, not because of their own sins, but because God himself withdraws. This night serves as a purification from everything that is not God: images, feelings and ideas. John sees a connection to Jesus' abandonment by God on the cross. And it is precisely in this dark night that a love grows that is founded solely on God himself. Could secularism, or „benign secularisation“, have something to do with this „darkness“, this withdrawal of God?

Teresa of Calcutta

Teresa of Calcutta (1910-2003), the religious founder of the Missionaries of Charity, who was born in the Ottoman Empire, present-day North Macedonia, also endured such „dark nights“ through no fault of her own for decades. Not even her ministry to the dying in the streets of Calcutta offered her solace. In such nights, she too felt connected to Jesus' abandonment by God on the cross. At the same time, she was convinced that this inner emptiness was part of her calling, enabling her to identify with the „forsaken of God in the world“.

In her posthumously published letters, one can read: „There is no God in my heart—he doesn’t seem to be.⁴⁴ – „The darkness is so great that I feel nothing—neither God nor my soul.”⁴⁵ Again, the spiritual formula appears that John of the Cross also knew: God withdraws and is thus present. Distance from God becomes the place of God’s hidden presence. A kind of hiding place for God.

Simone Weil

She is something of a „mystic of atheism“: not because she herself was an atheist, but because her mystical approach to God leads through the experience of God's distance, emptiness and withdrawal. This makes the French theologian Simone Weil a valuable source for a „small theology of atheism“. Marion's central idea of the dual movement—that God gives himself and, because of his overflowing abundance, simultaneously withdraws—finds support in her work.

Does the atheist, the person distant from God, realize their relationship with God precisely by living honestly in „absence de Dieu“, in God's absence? Does an atheist who takes this emptiness seriously stand before God more truthfully than the religiously self-assured person? Simone Weil is convinced: „God can only be loved when he is absent.“⁴⁶ For love, even for God, is only possible from complete freedom. But in order for humanity to be truly free, especially in relation to God, God withdraws from humanity and thereby reveals himself. God thus empties himself, which Simone Weil calls „décréation“.

Isn't that precisely what defines an atheist? Can't an atheist also be seen as someone who, while denying God, looks honestly at the world without harbouring religious illusions? This renders religious safeguards and false securities impossible. By perceiving and accepting the world as it is, an atheist, in effect, proves to be oriented toward God. This very „pure attention“, this „attention“ to the world, constitutes the „atheistic relationship with God“. The atheist who lives attentively, truthfully and without self-deception is already engaged in a relationship with God, even if they don't name God.⁴⁷ Simone Weil sees this „atheistic attention“ as the highest form of a relationship with God: „Attention, in its purest form, is prayer.“⁴⁸ The concept of „anonymous Christians“ (Karl Rahner⁴⁹) is indicated. Similarly, Hans Urs von Balthasar speaks of those who truly love, „to whom the Spirit of truth has been bestowed in a way veiled to us”⁵⁰. Those who truly love are saved, even if they are not given the grace to know and confess God in their lives.

According to Simone Weil, attentive perception of the world includes suffering from its lack. To an honest atheist, the world appears incomplete, empty, „not enough“. But it is precisely in this that God can work. Like Karl Rahner later⁵¹, she calls the experience of lack a place of grace.⁵²

In short, an atheist, without even realising it, experiences a relationship with God through truthfulness, attentiveness, the experience of lack, freedom and purity of thought. He stands, as Simone Weil puts it,—paradoxically—in a pure, non-sensual, non-illusory relationship with God. God is no longer an idol originating from humankind and Christian faith is no longer an ideology (Jean-Luc Marion⁵³).

But, as Weil's perspective might ask, is God only active in the suffering we endure? Could we not agree with the Franciscan mystic Richard Rohr from New Mexico that God is⁵⁴ hidden not only in great suffering, but also in great love?⁵⁵ Not only in overwhelming sorrow, but also in exhilarating joy? In times when life doesn't perish, but is reborn; not threatened, but flourishing? Doesn't hardship alone teach us to pray (or curse, which is also directed at God), but are unbridled joy, beauty, tenderness and gratitude also⁵⁶ possible places to glimpse a hidden mystery called God? Are these, then, hiding places of God, even among atheists?

1. See also Joas, Hans: Faith as an Option. Future Possibilities of Christianity, Freiburg 2000, 21.

2. Related to this is Karl Rahner's distinction between „benign regression“, that is, a salutary return to earlier forms of religious expression and „malignant regression“, which represents a denial of historical responsibility. Rahner, Karl: Schriften zur Theiologie VII, Einsiedeln 1966, 22–23. Rahner adopted the pair of terms benign and malignant from psychoanalysis: „Regression may be benign or malignant, depending on whether it serves development or defense“. Ferenczi, Sándor: Final Contributions to the Problems and Methods of Psycho-Analysis, London 1955, 210. Similarly, the Hungarian psychiatrist Michael Balint: „Regression may be benign when it serves growth, or malignant when it becomes a fixation“. Balint, Michael: Thrills and Regressions, London 1959, 123. - Idem: The Basic Fault, London 1968, 91–95.

3. Joas: Faith as an Option, 43-65.

4. Friedrich Nietzsche: The Gay Science, § 125 “Der tolle Mensch”, in: Collected Works. Critical Study Edition (KSA), Vol. 3, München 1980, 480–482. – Other relevant works by Nietzsche are: Thus Spoke Zarathustra, KSA 4, München 1980; idem: Beyond Good and Evil, KSA 5, München 1980; idem: On the Genealogy of Morality, KSA 5, München 1980; idem: The Antichrist, KSA 6, München 1980.

5. Jaspers, Karl: Nietzsche. Introduction to the Understanding of His Philosophy, Berlin 1936, 102. - Tillich, Paul: The Courage to Be, New Haven 1952, 39. - Ratzinger, Joseph: Introduction to Christianity, München 1968, 118.

6. Löwith, Karl: From Hegel to Nietzsche, Zürich 1941, 265.

7. de Lubac, Henri: The Drama of Atheistic Humanism, Freiburg 1965, 112.

8. Bultmann, Rudolf: Faith and Understanding, Vol. 1, Tübingen 1933, 52.

9. Von Balthasar, Hans Urs: Apocalypse of the German Soul, Vol. 2, Freiburg 1939, 241.

10. MacIntyre, Alasdair: After Virtue, Notre Dame 1981, 113.

11. Troeltsch, Ernst: Historicism and its Problems, Tübingen 1922, 698.

12. Niebuhr, Reinhold: The Nature and Destiny of Man, New York 1941, 192.

13. This corresponds to the diagnosis by Horst Eberhard Richter: The God Complex. The Birth of the Self in the Tension Between Dependence and Power, München 1979.

14. Heidegger, Martin: Nietzsche, 2 vols. Pfullingen 1961–1967, esp. vol.  1, 209–245. – Idem: Holzwege, Frankfurt a. M. Main 1950, 209–260. – Löwith, Karl: Nietzsche's Philosophy of the Eternal Recurrence of the Same. Berkeley 1972, 23–45. – Foucault, Michel: Les mots et les choses, Paris 1966, 398–422 (The Order of Things, Frankfurt a. M. Main 1971, 385–410.) – Bataille, Georges: La part maudite, Paris 1949, 97–118 (The Banned Part, München 1988). – Vattimo, Gianni: La fine della modernità, Milano 1985, 45–62.

15. These include Johann B. Metz (1928-2019), Eugen Biser (1926-2010) and Bernhard Welte (1906-1983).

16. Metz, Johann Baptist: Faith in History and Society. Studies on a Practical Fundamental Theology, Mainz 1977, 87–104. – Idem: Memoria Passionis: A Provocative Memory in a Pluralistic Society, Freiburg 2006.

17. sNietzsche: Antichrist, § 62.

18. sBiser, Eugen: Nietzsche. The Untimely Theologian, Freiburg 1998, 15–32; – Idem: Christ and Modernity, Freiburg 1991.

19. Welte, Bernhard: Atheism and Christianity, Freiburg 1968, 15.

20. Welte: ibid., 17.

21. Welte, Bernhard: In the Light of Nothingness, Freiburg 1965, 42.

22. Welte: ibid., 58.

23. Welte: ibid., 61.

24. Hans Joas criticizes the discourse on modernity and modernisation in many of his recent writings. The concept of modernity is itself a product of specific self-descriptions.” (Faith as an Option, 14.) „Modernisation is not a linear process, but a bundle of heterogeneous developments.” (Joas, Hans: The Power of the Sacred. An Alternative to the History of Disenchantment, Berlin 2017, 32).

25. Revol, Fabien: Théologie de la creation continuée, Paris 2017, 251–267. - Youvan, Douglas C.: Creatio Continua: God's Ongoing Creative Activity Through Emergent Processes, Cambridge 2025, 1–33-. - Oseo, Antonio P.: Creatio Continua: Man as a Work in Progress, Manila 2019, 1.

26. Vattimo, Gianni / Rovatti, Pier Aldo (ed.): Il pensiero debole, Milano 1983. - Vattimo, Gianni: La fine della modernità, Milano 1985. - Idem: Credere di credere, Milano 1999.

27. Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) was convinced: „Every consciousness is consciousness of something.“ (Husserl, Edmund: Logical Investigations, Vol. 1) 2, Tübingen 1984, 558). What appears to us springs from human intention, from our purpose. This also applies to the knowledge of God For him, God is the idea of perfect truth, the infinite regulative goal of all knowledge. (Husserl, Edmund: Cartesian Meditations and Paris Lectures, ed. by S. Strasser, The Hague 1950, § 58, 136.) - Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) went a step further: What is recognised is not an object for me. Rather, recognition is an event in which Dasein finds itself. An existential unfolding takes place. (Heidegger, Martin: The Origin of the Work of Art, in: Holzwege, Frankfurt a.  (M. 1950, 32.) God himself, however, cannot be known. He eludes all knowledge and therefore all accessibility.

28. Marion, Jean-Luc: The Revelation – From Elsewhere. A Contribution to a Critical History and a Phenomenological Concept of Revelation. Translated from the French by Alvin Letzkus, Eichstätt 2025.

29. The icon, alongside the event, the physicality and the idol, is one of the paradigmatic modes of a saturated phenomenon. Marion, Jean ‑Luc: Given. A Phenomenology of the Gift, Freiburg i.  Br. 2009, 319 – 347.

30. Hans Urs von Balthasar was an inspiration for his thinking. Balthasar focuses his gaze on Jesus, the Christ. The Incarnation makes divine self-withdrawal historically visible: „God's love is a love that empties itself“. The cry of abandonment by God on the cross is not only an expression of human despair, but the theological embodiment of alienation from God. God takes this alienation into himself (von Balthasar, Hans Urs: Theodramatic II/1, Einsiedeln 1973, 259).

31. Gianni Vattimo adds his own perspective, differing from Marion's. For Vattimo, the focus is on the story of God as a biblical or Christian „narrative“ that has significantly shaped Western civilisation. He develops his position in his „weak ontology“ (pensiero debole). The way God is portrayed is not a demonstration of his omnipotence and strength. In „Credere di credere“ (Believing that one believes), he writes: „Truth has not become strong, but weak“ (Vattimo, Gianni: Credere di credere, Milano 1996,  45). This is evident in the story of God's incarnation told to Christians. For him, this narrative represents the „disempowerment of God“ (Vattimo, Gianni: Dopo la cristianità, Milano 2002,  28.) The gift of God occurs as a „self-emptying,” thus alluding to the liturgical hymn in the Epistle to the Philippians (Philippians 2:6f.). God’s disempowerment takes place in a „kenotic,” self-emptying manner. However, there are differences between Marion and Vattimo. While for Vattimo the Incarnation is exhausted in its narration and he thus „de-incarnates” it, Marion emphasizes the self-giving of the phenomenon prior to all intentionality. For more details, see: Klun, Branko: Acta Philosophica, 2/2020, 172–183.

32. Vattimo, Gianni: Credere di credere, Milano 1996, 52.

33. Gogarten, Friedrich: Doom and Hope of the Modern Age. Stuttgart 1953, 27.

34. Peter Sloterdijk argues along related lines, viewing religion as a system of „exercises“ (anthropotechnics). Humans are „practice beings“ (Sloterdijk, Peter: You Must Change Your Life, Frankfurt a. M. 2009, 13), who are shaped through practices. Modern spirituality thus shifts into immanent fields of practice: mindfulness, art, self-optimisation, political engagement. Sloterdijk thereby provides a philosophical framework for what Henri Lefebvre calls „reconciled everyday life“: spirituality without reference to transcendence, but not without depth.

35. Teresa of Ávila: The Inner Castle (Las Moradas, 1577), in: Collected Works, Vol. 2. Translated and introduced by Ulrich Dobhan OCD and Elisabeth Peeters OCD, Freiburg 2010.

36. Eckhart, Meister: German Sermons and Tracts, München 1955, Sermon 52.

37. Eckhart, Meister: Sermon 52 („Vere tu es Deus absconditus”), in: Pfeiffer, Franz (ed.): German Mystics of the Fourteenth Century, Vol. II, Leipzig 1857, 280–284. – Here is the original text:

Der Prophet spricht: „Wârlich, du bist ein got der verborgenheit.“
Dar umbe begehrt got ein ledic herze, daz vrî sî von allen dingen.
Daz herze, daz ledic ist, da muoz got sin mit siner ganzen gotheit.
Je lediger der mensche aller dinge ist, je mêre mag got in im wirken.

Der mensche sol sô ledic stân, daz in niht bewege,
weder vreude noch leit, weder êre noch schmach,
weder gewin noch verlust.

Sô lange der mensche noch durch iht bewogen wirt,
sô ist er niht ledic.
Und sô lange er niht ledic ist,
mac got niht in im wirken.

Got ist ein got der verborgenheit,
dar umbe wil er ein herze,
daz verborgen sî vor allen creatûren
und vor im selbes.

In disem verborgenen grunde wirket got âne underlâz.
Und je tiefer der mensche in disen grunt eingât,
je mêre verlîret er sich selben
und vindet got.

Dar umbe sprichet meister Eckehart:
Der mensche sol sô lêr werden,
daz er ein stat sî,
dâ got wirken müge, als er wil,
und daz der mensche niht dar zu tuon noch dar von nemen.

Dâ der mensche iht wil, dâ wil got niht;
dâ der mensche niht wil, dâ wil got allez.

Diu wâre gotes erkennisse ist niht in bilde,
niht in begriffe,
niht in gefüele,
sunder in dem ledigen, stillen, verborgenen grunde,
dâ got sich selben offenbâret,
indem er sich verbirget.

38. Mieth, Dietmar: Meister Eckhart. Theologian – Preacher – Mystic, Freiburg 1994, 112.

39. Ruh, Kurt: Meister Eckhart. Theologian – Preacher – Mystic, München 1985, 89.

40. Alois M.: Meister Eckhart. Mysticism of the Ground, Freiburg 2006, 57.

41. John of the Cross, Llama de amor viva (1584–1585), composed in Granada and dedicated to Doña Ana de Peñalosa (1584–1585), who asked the author for an interpretation of the poem, in: Obras completas, ed. by Lucinio Ruano de la Iglesia, Madrid ⁵ 1991, 737–782.

42. Ibn 'Abbād of Ronda: Letters on the Sūfī path si è cle, in: Horizons Maghr é bins, No. 61: L ' h é ritage de l ' Espagne des trois cultures, 2010, 63 - 69. - Schimmel, Annemarie: Mystical dimensions of Islam. The history of Sufism, Frankfurt a. M. Main 1995, 358. f.

43. John of the Cross: Noche oscura I, Chapters 8–9.

44. Mother Teresa: Come, be my light. The private writings of the saint of Calcutta, ed. by Brian Kolodiejchuk, Freiburg 2008, 210.

45. Ibid., 185.

46. Weil, Simone: Gravity and Grace, München 1952, 97.

47. In this context, Max Horkheimer brings justice into play. He speaks of a „longing for the wholly Other” that persists even where belief in God has ceased: „Whoever does not believe in God nevertheless longs for justice. ” (Horkheimer, Max: On the Critique of Instrumental Reason, Frankfurt a. M. 1967, 108–110) Thus, atheism becomes the locus of a negative theology, which—similar to Simone Weil's work—keeps the question of God alive in the mode of absence.

48. Weil, Simone: Attente de Dieu, Paris 1966, 15 (Waiting for God, München 1959, 112).

49. Rahner, Karl: Christianity and the non-Christian religions, in: Schriften zur Theologie, Einsiedeln 1963, 145–164. – Idem: Hearers of the Word, München 1941 ( 2nd ed. 1963). – Idem: On the Possibility of Faith Today, in: Schriften zur Theologie V, 9–30. - Idem: Paganism, in: Lexicon for Theology and Church, Vol.  4, Freiburg ² 1960.

50. Von Balthasar, Hans Urs: Spiritus Creator, Einsiedeln 1967, 159.

51. Rahner, Karl: On the Experience of Grace, in: Schriften zur Theologie, Vol.  4, Einsiedeln 1960, 297 – 319.

52. Weil, Simone: La Pesanteur et la grâce, Paris 1947, 56 (Gravity and Grace, München 1952, 58).

53. Marion, Jean-Luc: L'Idole et la distance, Paris 1977, 28-31.

54. Karl Jaspers coined the term „borderline situations“: „I must die, I must suffer, I must fight, I am subject to chance, I inevitably become entangled in guilt. We call these fundamental situations of our existence borderline situations“. Jaspers, Karl: Introduction to Philosophy. Twelve Radio Lectures, Zürich 1950 20f.

55. Rohr, Richard: The Universal Christ: How a Forgotten Reality Can Change Everything We See, Hope For and Believe, New York 2019, 28f.

56. „Gratefulness is the attitude that makes our hearts open to life in all its fullness. ” Steindl ‑Rast, David: Gratefulness, the Heart of Prayer, Mahwah (NJ) 2007, 29.

An indestructible longing for God?

In academic circles today, a core question of sound theological anthropology is being debated: whether every human being carries within them something like an ineradicable „longing for God“, that is, a capacity for God whose dynamic core is „longing for God“. This manifests itself as an immeasurable yearning that cannot be satisfied by anything in this world.

The Judeo-Christian tradition is convinced that humankind carries such a longing for God in its innermost being. It is celebrated in the Psalms. Psalm 63, attributed to King David, is considered the song of this longing for God.

God, you are my God ; I seek you, my soul thirsts for you.
My flesh faints for you like a dry, thirsting land without water.
Therefore I look to you in the sanctuary, to behold your power and your glory.
For your steadfast love is better than life; my lips will sing praise to you.
Thus I will bless you while I live; in your name I will lift up my hands.
My soul is satisfied as with rich food and marrow; my mouth will sing praises to you with joyful lips.
I remember you on my bed; I meditate on you when I am awake.
You have been my help; I sing for joy in the shadow of your wings.
My soul clings to you; your right hand holds me fast.

The Church Father Augustius (354-430), who served in Hippo in North Africa, is considered a teacher of the longing for God. In his Confessions he writes: „Fecisti nos ad te, Domine, et inquietum est cor nostrum, donec requiescat in te” („You created us for yourself, O Lord and our hearts are restless until they find rest in You.)”¹ This statement reveals the greatness of every human being.² God, who is overflowing love within himself, gives freely his love. The creation of the world is a moment of this outpouring of God's love: by loving, God creates, with the aim of uniting himself with his creation in love. One can thus continue Augustine's thought: „God's heart is restless until it rests in the heart of man“. Or, with Karl Rahner: „Until he has become the heart of the world.”³.

Love, however, is a reciprocal game. God's love for humanity is to be reciprocated by humanity's love for God. Therefore, in the Judeo-Christian texts, love of God is considered the highest commandment, the central guide to a life of abundance. It is what makes humanity human. But in order for humanity to love God, God himself has bestowed upon it the capacity to do so. To put it playfully: The longing of the boundless God for humanity leads to the boundless longing of humanity for God. Psalm 63 sings of precisely this longing. It is Meister Eckhart's longing for the birth of God. Richard Rohr, in turn, speaks of oneing, a becoming one with God, a connectedness that he understands as the noble fruit of all „reconnecting“ (now derived from religare or religere) religion: „The goal of religion is to help us see the divine in everything and everyone. When we do, the result is a deep sense of connectedness.”⁴

The emergence of a secular(ist) culture now directly and profoundly affects this longing for God in every human being—a longing that has hitherto been widely accepted without contradiction. Social scientists encounter people who, when asked about it, claim to have no such longing for God. They don't miss God. They are not searching for meaning and certainly not for God, according to empirical findings.

Such collected data again demand interpretation. Among experts, these interpretations vary widely. In particular, the question of whether the longing for God⁵ is something like an „anthropological constant“ is up for debate.

Longing for God dies with God

A first position in this debate: The more secularised a culture, the less longing for God. While this longing for God may have existed in religiously influenced cultures, it is clearly possible that—just as Nietzsche said that „God can be killes”, then the longing for him can also die. If the notion of a longing for God is nevertheless clung to, it could be an expression of wishful thinking on the part of Church leaders and traditional religious scholars who are perplexed by the dynamics of secularisation. The assumption that every person possesses an unquenchable longing for God is dismissed as unscientific in a manner unusually common in academic discourse:⁶ „Anyone who still assumes an inherent religious longing in all people is denying reality.”⁷

Redirecting longing

The idea that the longing for God „dies“ along with God in the course of secularisation is not the only position held in academic circles today. Some diagnose not a death of longing, but its „redirection“. While the dynamic of longing remains intact in such a redirection, because culture has forgotten God, become deaf to God and no longer perceives the quiet music of God, this longing loses God as its goal. Other goals take its place: modern „substitute gods“⁸ such as ideologies⁹, sports¹⁰, nutrition, new forms of religion¹¹ like New Age, nationalism, consumerism¹², faith in science/scientism¹³ and political movements. To quote the poet Novalis (1772-1801): „Where there are no gods, ghosts reign“.¹⁴

Desire and lacking

It is not only theologians who now see excess as a typical characteristic of human longing: „Desire is without measure“, wrote the French psychiatrist and psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan (1901-1981).¹⁵ As an atheist, however, he did not interpret this excessive longing as a longing for God. It seems, therefore, that there is a secular, excessive longing that is not directed toward an „boundless“ God.

This desire is therefore accompanied by a lacking. Lacan sees this not as a deficiency, but as a structure that causes the longing to always be experienced as unfulfilled. The longing remains open: „Desire arises from lacking and can only remain open.“ ¹⁶ Or, as Karl Rahner once put it: The bills of life always remain open, which he interpreted as an experience of grace.¹⁷

Moments that fail

The French Marxist sociologist Henri Lefebvre (1901-1991), also an atheist, was equally aware of humanity's boundless longing. In his magnificent work „La critique de la vie quotidienne“ (The Critique of Everyday Life), he listed „moments“ in which this boundless longing is satisfied.¹⁸ These are life-affirming moments in which space and time vanish: like celebrations of love, fulfilling work, discovery and play. These cannot be manufactured, but rather come to us in a reconciled everyday life.

Admittedly, these moments fail. People have to go back to their everyday life, which is limited in space and time. “Le moment est ce qui surgit contre la répétition, mais il est toujours travaillé par le manque.”¹⁹Moments and manque are dialectically referred to each other: „Le manque is the condition de possibilité du moment.”²⁰ But people remember these moments and hope that they will „befall“ more such experiences in the next life: This is what makes an atheist live.

Life as a last chance

Educationalist Marianne Gronemayer takes a different approach to humanity's boundless longing. In her book „Life as the Last Opportunity“, she explores how people today cultivate this boundless longing.

Time scarcity

In the book's subtitle, „Time Scarcity“, she already hints at the circumstances under which contemporaries seek to satisfy their boundless longing. “We live in a measurable time—and yet we are driven by an immeasurable longing.“ ²¹ She then describes the nature of such a life. Life becomes fast-paced. People try to squeeze as much as possible out of life through acceleration. If a relationship becomes boring, more and more people move on to the next phase of their lives. Demands increase, easily tipping into overload. Advice on slowing down²² and deceleration has little effect against the looming threat of burnout. This way of life erodes solidarity, because others become rivals for scarce resources. Life threatens²³ to become „one-dimensional“, empty and meaningless.

Escape or seeking the wideness

Ultimately, such a life doesn't feel right or fulfilling in the long run. “Something's not right“. „It's enough to make you want to run away“, people complain. Indeed, some people do seek „escape“. They flee²⁴ into drugs, alcohol, a charade, illness²⁵, sectoid groups and some even into suicide. But there are also people who don't seek“ escape“, but rather “wideness“ (sie suchen nicht das Weite, sondern die Weite). They embark on a spiritual path that no longer bears the marks of escape, but leads to a biographical renewal.²⁶

Reconciled everyday life

Even atheists can cultivate such a spiritual art of living if, as Lefebvre argues, they strive for a „reconciled“ or „fulfilling“ everyday life.²⁷ For „moments“, he says, cannot be manufactured, but only received, when everyday life is not alienated from it. In a reconciled everyday life, as the previously meditated authorities would say, attention, responsibility and openness flourish. Then these wise individuals, although they perceive themselves as distant from God in their atheism, would be close to God. Such theological thinking does not serve any unwanted appropriation²⁸, but merely considers what is or what can be.

Ending

My grandmother, a simple woman, felt an overwhelming longing. However, her religious culture allowed her to „outsource“ this longing to the heavens she had yet to reach. This gave her the advantage of being able to generously share her modest happiness on earth with others.

1. Confessions of the Holy Church Father Aurelius Augustinus, translated from the Latin by Alfred Hofmann, Library of the Church Fathers, 1st series, vol.  18, München 1914, 1.

2. Pope Leo XIV, a monk of the Augustinian Order, quotes his order's founder in his encyclical on artificial intelligence, „Magnifica Humanitas“:“ To build a city oriented toward the common good, therefore, requires first and foremost to build upon the rock of our relationship with God and to recognize that the truth of his love calls us to a life 'in abundance' (John 10:10) and to communion with him. Together with Saint Augustine, we can say: 'For you you have made us and our hearts are restless until they rest in you. ' (St. Augustine, Confessions, I, 1, 1: CCSL 27, Turnhout 1981, 1). For God has inscribed in our hearts a longing for happiness that encompasses all dimensions of life. And the Church, in dialogue with the men and women of our time, becomes aware of the urgency to preserve this longing and to direct it toward its deepest truth“. (Magnifica Humanitas, 11)

3. Rahner, Karl: Kleines Kirchenjahr. Ostern, München 1954, 84-92, here 88.

4. „The goal of religion is to help us recognize the divine in everything and everyone. When we succeed in this, a deep sense of connection arises. ” Rohr, Richard: The Universal Christ, New York 2019 33.

5. „The longing for God belongs to the innermost structure of human existence.“ Bauer, Franz-Xaver, Anthropology of Religion, Wien 1971, 27.

6. „The notion of an inherent longing for God in every human being ignores the empirical reality of religious indifference. Those who cling to it expose themselves to the accusation of denying reality. ” Löffler, Bernhard: Longing for God? On the Critique of a Fundamental Theological Concept, in: Herder Korrespondenz 72 (2018), No.  5, 22 – 25.

7. Pollack, Detlef: The Church must acknowledge reality, in: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, January 23, 2017 6.

8. As early as the 19th century, Auguste Comte observed that while modernity may lose God, it does not lose the religious structure of the human spirit. In his „Religion of Humanity“, humanity itself becomes the bearer of the sacred: „Humanity becomes the true Grand-Être“. Comte thus provides early evidence for the thesis that religious longing does not disappear but shifts to new objects—substitute religions, ideologies, cults of progress. Comte, Auguste: Catéchisme positiviste, Paris 1852, 3.

9. „Modern political ideologies present themselves with a religious claim and replace the transcendent order with a worldly one“. Voegelin, Eric: The Political Religions, München 1996 (first published 1938), 15.

10. „Modern sport often takes on functions that were previously reserved for religion“. Weis, Kurt: Sport as a substitute religion, in: Idem: Sport – Culture – Religion, Schorndorf 1990, 12.

11. „Modern societies create new forms of religion that replace traditional religion. ” Luckmann, Thomas, The Invisible Religion, Frankfurt 1991 (first published 1967), 52.

12. „Consumption, lifestyle and wellness are increasingly taking on religious functions of self-affirmation and meaning-making. ” Knoblauch, Hubert: Popular Religion. On the Way to a Spiritual Society, Frankfurt 2009, 87.

13. „Scientism makes a claim to absolute truth, which in its structure resembles religious promises of salvation“. Blumenberg, Hans: The Legitimacy of the Modern Age, Frankfurt 1996, 119.

14. Novalis: Fragments. First fully ordered edition, edited by Ernst Kamnitzer, Dresden 1929.  179.

15. Lacan, Jacques: Le Séminaire, Livre VI: Le désir et son interprétation, Paris 2013, 327.

16. „Longing arises from lack and can only remain open. ” Lacan, Jacques: Le Séminaire, Livre VI: Le désir et son interprétation, Paris 2013 287. – „Le désir est ce qui reste ouvert, parce qu'il est soutenu par le manque.“ („Desire is that which remains open because it is maintained by lack.”) - This: Le Séminaire XI: Les quatre concepts fondamentaux de la psychanalyse, Paris 1973, 167.

17. Rahner, Karl: On the Experience of Grace, in: Schriften zur Theologie, Vol.  4, Einsiedeln 1960, 297 – 319.

18. Charles Taylor identifies similar experiences in modern people. These lead them beyond themselves („immanent transcendence“) without requiring a religious interpretation. He includes among these experiences moral upheaval, aesthetic rapture, devotion to justice, love, selflessness and experiences of fullness of meaning: „There are forms of fullness available within a purely immanent frame“. Taylor: A Secular Age, 600.

19. Lefebvre, Henri: Critique de la vie quotidienne II, Paris 1961, 332.

20. Ibid., 331 – 333.

21. Gronemeyer, Marianne: Life as the last opportunity. Security needs and time scarcity, Darmstadt 2014, 171.

22. Nadolny, Sten: In Praise of Slowness. On the Use of Time, München 1993.

23. Marcuse, Herbert: One-Dimensional Man. Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society, Neuwied 1967.

24. Illouz, Eva: The Happiness Imperative: How It Controls Our Lives, Berlin 2019. - Rosa, Hartmut: Unavailability, Berlin 2018. - Gronemeyer, Marianne: The Power of Needs, Zürich 2020. - Odell, Jenny: How to Do Nothing: Resisting the Attention Economy, New York 2019.

25. Affemann, Rudolf: Sick of Society. Symptoms, Diagnosis, Therapy, Stuttgart 1973.

26. Martin, Ariane: Longing – The Beginning of Everything. Dimensions of Contemporary Spirituality, Ostfildern 2005. – This idea of a spirituality of expansiveness is explored by important spiritual authors: Wolf, Notker: Breadth of the Heart. Spiritual Impulses for Everyday Life, Freiburg 2010. – Grün, Anselm: Breadth of Life. Spiritual Paths Out of Narrowness, München 2012. – Rutishauser, Christian: Seeking Breadth – Finding Depth. Spiritual Paths in Everyday Life, Freiburg 2018. – Stutz, Pierre: Daring to Expand. Living Spiritually in Challenging Times, Freiburg 2021. – Sölle, Dorothee: Mysticism and Resistance. You Silent Cry, Hamburg 1997.

27. Lefebvre, Henri: Critique de la vie quotidienne II, Paris 1961, 330-333.

28. Hans Urs von Balthasar had accused his colleague Karl Rahner of such a thing regarding his concept of „anonymous Christians“, which Rahner, however, rejected, arguing that von Balthasar completely distorted what he meant by the metaphor. Von Balthasar, Hans Urs: Cordula or the Emergency, Einsiedeln 1966.  70 – 84. - Rahner, Karl: Experiences of a Catholic Theologian, in: Schriften zur Theologie VIII, Einsiedeln 1967, 107 – 112.

Part 4: Being Christian in the Secular Age

Years ago, I published a book with Peter Neuner entitled „Thy Kingdom Come: Practical Ecclesiogenesis”¹. This book deals, on the one hand, with a contemporary „ecclesiology“, the doctrine of the Church and on the other hand, with the questions of „becoming Church“, that is, ecclesiogenesis. And this is done within the respective cultural context. Thus, this concluding section will focus on becoming Church in the secular age. It will also consider the question of how one can be a consistent Christian under the conditions of the secular age. “Consistent“ comes from the Latin „consequi“, meaning „to follow“. Christians who know themselves to be called to follow Jesus and have chosen this path—that is, who choose the Christian option—are consistent.

A brief look back. A high degree of complexity has been consistently evident in all areas considered so far. The data itself already reflects this complexity. In Europe, which is affected by secularising dynamics to varying degrees across regions, there is reliable data on a dramatic „religious decline“. However, this is accompanied by reports of a „religious revival“. Particularly among the younger generation, a surprising religious revival is being observed in some countries.

Not only is the data complex, but so is its sociological interpretation. For a long time, experts followed the formula „the more modern, the more secular“. And because the modernisation of societies is progressing worldwide, the process of secularisation was considered unstoppable and irreversible, according to relevant experts. More recently, however, the number of those has increased who, given the same data, arrive at a significantly different interpretation. What is new, they argue, is the possibility, developed over decades in a once religiously shaped culture, of choosing a secular, non-religious worldview. This does not, however, eliminate the previously dominant religious option. It remains open to people, but it is losing its socio-cultural self-evidence. Europe is therefore not secularising, but has entered a „secular age“ (Charles Taylor) in which a non-religious option has also become a viable choice. People's choices regarding religion are influenced by a variety of factors: these include history, culture, whether the respective modernity is experienced as compatible with or rejecting religion, how the relationship between state and religious communities is composed, which can take many forms and how the relationship between religion and nation manifests itself.

Last but not least, the philosophical and theological interpretation of the data is also complex. A „benign secularisation“ (secularity) can be distinguished from a „malignant secularisation“ (secularism). Secularity has a positive connotation from a theological perspective; some experts even consider it an achievement of Christianity; secularism, on the other hand, often appears ideologically hostile to religion and the Church.

This, in short, is the result of the reflections presented in the first three parts of this book: data, social science analysis and theological reflection. Based on this, the question then arises as to how the Churches can position themselves within this situation and fulfil their mission in a way that is both faithful to tradition and culturally affine.

1. Neuner, Peter/Zulehner, Paul M. Your kingdom come. Practical Ecclesiology. Düsseldorf, 1980. (Cirkev v dnesnom svete. Portreba alebo Prezitok. Praktická ekleziológia, Bratislava 2013. - Dodi Kraljevstvo Tvoje. Prakticna Ekleziologija, Rijeka 2015. - Prijd´ královstvi tvé. Praktické Uceni o Cirkvi, Yvsehrad 2015. - Zrozumiec Kosciol. Eklezjologia Praktyczna, Poznan 2016. - Jöjjön el a Te országod. Gyakorlati egyháztan, Budapest 1987. – 하느님의 나라가 오소서. 실천적 교회론, Seoul 1990. -愿祢的国来临：实践教会学, Taipei 1992.)

Take cultural context seriously

Some theologians are accused by sociologists of „denying reality“. For a Christian Church, however, such a denial would not only be professionally incompetent but also a grave theological error. This error was committed not only by those familiar with the scriptures but by the entire crowd when Jesus, after years of being hidden, appeared publicly and taught. Jesus rebuked them for failing to understand the signs of the times:

When you see the clouds rising in the west, you say, „It’s going to rain,” and it does. And when the south wind blows, you say, „It’s going to be hot”, and it does. You hypocrites! You know how to interpret the appearance of the earth and the sky, but why can’t you interpret the signs of the times? (Luke 12:54–56)

Signs of the Times describes an event in which God makes himself audible. John XXIII already named three such signs in his letter Pacem in terris (1963): the rise of working people (127), the liberation of peoples from colonialism (129) and the rise of women, who demand equal rights, equal dignity and equal participation in society (128).

The Second Vatican Council, which he convened, takes up this term of the signs of the times: „It is important to investigate the signs of the times and to interpret them in the light of the Gospel.“ (Gaudium et spes, 4)

A sign of the times, interpreted in the light of the Gospel, is what each era demands of the Church of God. I have called this task of sound pastoral theology „kairology“. The word is reminiscent of the Greek god „kairos“, who symbolizes that time which passes us by so quickly. The „god of opportunity“ is depicted with a magnificent head of hair on his forehead, while the back of his head is bald. The message of this myth has been condensed into a timeless proverb: „Seize the opportunity by the forelock!“

I apply the exhortation to look for the signs of the times today to the emergence of the „secular age“ (Charles Taylor). Two kairological tasks are emerging for Christian Churches: to perceive reality without embellishment and to interpret what is perceived from the perspective of the Gospel of Jesus Christ, thus from God's perspective, in an appreciative and prophetic way. When a Christian Church does this, it shares in God's passion for his world (Joel 2:18).¹

Accepting reality and interpreting it correctly

Firstly, Christian Churches need an openness to empirical research and thus data-informed work, meaning a willingness to perceive the situation and developments of religions and Churches with the help of relevant academic disciplines. Well-developed, empirically based practical theology² or long-term research on religion across Europe (European Value System Study) or in Eastern ‑and Central Europe³, demonstrates how data-based analyses can effectively contribute to increasing the cultural affinity of Church activities.

It is important to recognize from the outset that in our European cultures, it is no longer a given that people choose the Christian option. Instead, after centuries in which Christian faith, in its Catholic or Protestant form, was an unchosen fate, a „secular option“ can be chosen without social disadvantage. This is a further development of the formula „from fate to choice“, coined by Peter L. Berger. This secular option, in turn, has many variations: for example, atheistic, apatheistic, agnostic, or indifferent. What these variations seem to have in common is that they operate within a secular immanent worldview (immanent frame: Charles Taylor), in which religion, religious communities and with them God, play virtually no role in interpreting the world or in conducting one's life. Some, to recall the bibliographically undocumented quote from the East German theologian Günter Kröpke, have „forgotten that they have forgotten God“.

For our reflection on the appropriate performance of a Christian Church in such an age, what is important is less how people are numerically distributed among these options, which varies regionally and according to social characteristics in Europe. Rather, what is significant is that more and more people are currently taking advantage of the opportunity to choose in religious matters and are opting for the secular option.

This new possibility of choosing the „secular option“ is not, as was previously the religious option, an inescapable fate, but rather, like the religious option, something that can be chosen or rejected. This is demonstrated by the not infrequent shift from one option to the other and in every direction: through leaving, joining or rejoining the Church. Religious mobility has become possible; the type of seekers is widespread. This does not mean, however, that those who have arrived at their destination in their search have thereby found themselves on the ground of (un)certainty of faith.

Often, there is a close connection between the Christian option of faith and belonging to a Gospel communit as well as participating in its worship services. The connection between a personal choice and a community appears somewhat looser in the case of leaving the community. At least for a considerable time and under favourable cultural conditions, a faith-based option can certainly persist after formally leaving the community.⁴ This leads to what Grace Davie, in a transitional phase of her sociological thinking on religion, called „believing without belonging“. ⁵ Institutional decline is not necessarily synonymous with a loss of faith; secularisation is not necessarily the same as de-Christianisation (Miklós Tomka⁶; Karl Gabriel⁷).

Part of being sensitive to reality is not only to focus on the secularising dynamics, which some consider irreversible, but also to perceive divergent developments with calm, empirical awareness and even anticipate them as possibilities, without immediately labelling them as irreversible counter-trends. Crucially, the overall socio-religious development, viewed in this way, is not predetermined but fundamentally dynamic and open to change in every direction. Developments in European religious landscapes are therefore not linear in any direction but are characterised by competing dynamics.

As explained in the section on the social science interpretation debate, the actual development—that is, the specific worldview choice someone makes—is shaped by a multitude of factors, not just the vague concept of modernisation. Among these factors, many experts consider how the Churches deal with this new era to be a crucial one. Secularisation is not an inescapable fate for the Christian Churches, especially not in Europe. The Churches will see it as their task to keep the option of faith open, to credibly „propose“ it based on lived personal or communal experience and, if necessary, to accompany people on their path of opting for a different faith. Mission thus becomes a dialogical, culturally sensitive process of communication. And this is based on an appreciation of freedom, responsibility and conscience, which are closely intertwined with secularism.

Finally, from a theological perspective, we must delve even deeper: What role does the ever-present grace of God, which seizes someone⁸ and⁹ can unexpectedly „break into“ their life, play in the emergence of a faith-based option, even in the secular age? A highly relevant saying of the prophet Isaiah, which he proclaimed prophetically in God's name, might apply to us today:

See, I am doing a new thing; now it springs up, do you not perceive it? (Isaiah 43:19)

Respect for the different options

With the decision to embrace the „secular age“ and its possibility of choosing a „non-religious option“, Churches are strongly advised not to morally condemn anyone because of their secular choice. Many atheists possess a high degree of humanity, love, a sense of justice and, not least, a moral universalism¹⁰ —sometimes even more than those with a religious option¹¹.

Furthermore, people with a secular orientation are certainly familiar with innerworldly experiences of transcendence, for example, when they derive their values and moral concepts from the „sacred“ (Hans Joas). Just as there are „multiple modernities“ (Shmuel Noah Eisenstadt, Peter L. Berger), we must also assume „multiple transcendences“: a „religious“ one that reaches God and a „secular“ one that refers to the „sacred“ located in the „immanent frame“ and accessible to all people.

People with both religious and secular beliefs share an appreciation for „earthly realities“, aside from escapist tendencies, especially among religious individuals. The Second Vatican Council addressed this as follows:

If one understands the autonomy of earthly realities to mean that created things and societies possess their own laws and values, which humankind must gradually recognize, use and order, then such a demand for autonomy is entirely justified. (Gaudium et spes 36)

Consequently, moral theologians sensitive to the times are considering an „autonomous morality¹². This can be recognised by all people of good will and shared with one another in public dialogue.

Therefore, a sound theology of this world and what constitutes it is urgently needed as the foundation for pastoral care in the secular age: that is, a theology of that secularity which, according to important thinkers, owes its existence to Christianity. It is also important to recognize that secular people—often unconsciously—develop a kind of secular spirituality, which can be interpreted theologically as the workings of the Spirit of God. According to important authors already introduced in Part Three, such attitudes include attentiveness (Simone Weil), responsibility for others (Emmanuel Levinas), openness (Karl Rahner), compassion (Jean-Luc Marion), critique of violence (René Noël Théophile Girard), appreciation of weakness (Gianni Vattimo), solidarity (Dietrich Bonhoeffer) and moral universalism (Hans Joas). Love then conquers violence.

Furthermore, an appreciative and prophetic theology of secularisation will not shy away from critically questioning whether understanding is clouded by self-interest when the secular option is misused in an ideological struggle against the religious option. In such cases, secularity, which should be valued, tips into questionable secularism.

What is needed is a theologically sympathetic view of indifference or apatheism, especially with regard to the old transdisciplinary¹³ question of humanity's boundless longing: whether this longing is always ultimately directed towards God or can be satisfied in this world and whether the longing for God can also disappear along with the forgetting of God – and if so, where does it go?

1. Zulehner, Paul M.: Passion for the World. Again the Forgetting of God, Ostfildern 2023.

2. Join-Lambert, Arnaud: Empirical Pastoral Theology, Freiburg 1999. - Idem: Empirical Pastoral Theology. Foundations – Methods – Applications, Freiburg 2003.

3. Tomka, Miklós: Religiosity in East Central Europe, Budapest 1999.

4. Leaving a Church can then be interpreted „not as a loss, but as an expression of a spiritual movement. ” Steindl ‑Rast, David: Credo. A Spiritual Autobiography, Freiburg 2015, 112.

5. Davie, Grace: Religion in Britain since 1945: Believing without Belonging, Oxford 1994. – She later puts this optimistic assumption into perspective: „I have come to see that 'believing without belonging' describes only one moment in a much more complex and changing religious landscape.“ Davie, Grace: Religion in Britain: A Persistent Paradox, Oxford ² 2015, 86.

6. Tomka, Miklós: Religion in European Modernity, Budapest 1999, 112 – 118.

7. Gabriel, Karl: Christianity between Tradition and Postmodernity. Analyses – Perspectives, Freiburg 1992, 45 – 52.

8. „…I press on to take hold of it, because Christ Jesus took hold of me. ” (Philippians 3:12)

9. David Steindl Rast sees the surprise as a sign of God: https://www.kathpress.at/goto/archiv/2593578/steindl-rast-zum-100. -geburtstag-gott-heisst-berraschung

10. Grosser, Alfred: The Fruits of Their Tree. An Atheist View of Christians, Göttingen 2005.

11. Pope Francis observes this in his encyclical on universal fraternity „Fratelli tutti” (2020): „Paradoxically, those who consider themselves unbelievers can sometimes fulfill God’s will better than believers.” (FT 74)

12. Auer, Alfons: Autonomous Morality and Christian Faith, Düsseldorf 1971. - Virt, Günter: Epikeia. Studies in Theological Ethics, Wien 1974.

13. It concerns sociology, psychology, religious studies, patristics (teachings of the Church Fathers) and pedagogy. More information can be found in the third part, „Longing for God“.

On the theology of pastoral care today

For his 80th birthday Andreas Heller and I were able to have a lengthy conversation with Karl Rahner „on the theology of pastoral care today“. This resulted in a book with precisely this subtitle. The main title of the published book of dialogues was: „For you anticipate our actions with your grace.”¹

This title already contains a significant pastoral-theological statement: Pastoral theology is about theology itself, not a sociological pragmatism that reacts directly to uninterpreted data and trends with its proposed actions. Pastoral theology revolves around God and his action in history and society. This action of God precedes all human action, including that of the Church. To this I connect the second major desideratum for the Church in the secular age: to dare to engage more deeply in theology and to place God's preemptive action at the forefront of everything.

The Second Vatican Council already followed this logic. Cardinal Franz König, an influential participant in the Council, called the most important document „Dei Verbum“, the dogmatic constitution on divine revelation. He considered the Pastoral Constitution Gaudium et spes, „The Church in the Modern World“, to be the next most important. Finally, there is Lumen Gentium, which explores the question of what form of the Church, renewed from the sources of Sacred Scripture, is needed in today's world and how it should act. Just as the form of the Church and its actions are constantly evolving, so too is the „pastoral theology“ that focuses on this action and therefore recognizes a „today“. It strives to be „in keeping with the times“, or in a word, „timely“. Being „in keeping with“ does not mean „adapting“. Rather, it is about an „update“, or in Italian, an „aggiornamento“, bringing it into the present day. Church action is therefore not only in accordance with the Gospel, but also „culturally sensitive“, timely and situationally appropriate. It is about nothing less than the artistic endeavour of creatively connecting tradition and contemporary situation. This is precisely what Pope Francis proposed in his inaugural apostolic exhortation Evangelii Gaudium (2013), when he took the entrusted Gospel as his starting point and simultaneously called for an inculturation of the Gospel, which amounted to a decentralisation of the hitherto uniformly Europeanised Roman Catholic Church. Pope Leo XIV. endorsed this position.²

Grace as an undeserved gift

According to the theological doctrine of the Church, this is a moment in the grand narrative of salvation history, which coincides with world history.³ This narrative tells of a God who is self-giving love from the „Father“ to the „Son“ in the Holy Spirit, according to the traditional Trinitarian formula for comprehending the incomprehensible. But God has poured this love out to „someone who is not himself“, which ultimately remains as incomprehensible as the inner life of God itself. God bestows his love upon creation, creating it „ex amore“ (Wisdom 11:24-26). Creation is thus a moment in the continuous outpouring of his love. This creation unfolds in a „creatio continua”⁴. The driving force of evolution (according to Pierre Teilhard de Chardin⁵) is, from the very beginning, the divine Spirit of love, which already hovered over the waters (Genesis 1:2). Evolution will be complete when God is united with his creation.⁶ God has already begun to achieve this goal of unity in one of us, Jesus of Nazareth: in Jesus, the Christ, who is the visible image of the invisible God (Colossians 1:15).

With the incarnation⁷ of God, a central event in the Christian faith, history, as Paul states in 1 Corinthians 10:11, has entered the end times. Through him and for him all things were created (Colossians 1:16). History will be completed when everything has matured into the risen Christ.⁸ In this „Cosmic Christ”⁹ will be „God all in all” (1 Corinthians 15:28).

The Christian Church and its actions are situated precisely within this „end times“. It serves the maturation of the world toward its fulfilment as the goal of salvation history. To this end, it recalls the sacred knowledge bestowed upon it concerning the events since creation, culminating in the incarnation of Jesus Christ and concerning what is to come. Through the Gospel entrusted to it, it proclaims that history, in its eschatological finale, is about to be brought to completion through God's powerful Spirit. This completion, too, is owed to the ever-present grace of God.

Such a boldly concise compilation of central Christian positions clearly demonstrates what Karl Rahner's formula for the theology of pastoral care, „For you precede our actions with your grace“, means today. Grace is at work in all the great events of history, but also in the small stories of life; it is an indispensable, freely given gift. This applies to the individual, but also to the Church community and its entrusted work in today's world. There is thus a primacy of ever-preceding grace, which does not predestine freedom, but rather liberates it: „You will know the truth and the truth will set you free“ (John 8:32). Grace, however, is God himself, who gives himself. Perhaps it is this primacy of grace that distinguishes a sociological from a theological view of the world and thus of the state of religion and its development.

The Church is iconic-sacramental

Modern philosophy¹⁰ offers helpful concepts to make such complex theological connections about God and his actions in history and society accessible within today's framework of thought.

God is not „invented“ by humans within the limits of their cognitive abilities; that would make God a possession of humankind, something that has happened repeatedly throughout history. Such an image of God is considered philosophically an „idol“. Faith in God then degenerates into ideology. God is now used, or rather misused, to ultimately justify inhumane violence. No religion, with the exception of the Baháʼí Faith, has resisted such legitimation of violence throughout its history. And this in the name of an „adapted to us“¹¹ God. Religions thus became part of the problem, not part of the solution to one of humanity's greatest problems. They allowed that love gives way to violence. Scripture, however, tells us that Jesus reversed this. In his life and death on the cross, he transformed violence into love.¹²

The great world-religions teach that knowledge of God does not „originate“ from human understanding, but rather arises as revelation „from elsewhere“. God reveals himself. In philosophical terms, this makes him a phenomenon. And not just any phenomenon, but a „saturated“ one. It possesses such a fullness that its very existence cannot be contained within the finite capacity for human understanding.

God does not reveal truths about himself, but rather „gives himself“. He communicates himself, which is what the term „God's self-giving“¹³ stands for. Human beings are then the recipients, the ones blessed. In such a theological anthropology, what characterizes humanity is its capacity to receive God and his revelation. Human beings are, in their essence, „hearers of the word”¹⁴. They possess a „supernatural existential”¹⁵, that is, a receptiveness to God. God's self-gibing „occurs“ undeservedly and without obligation. This means precisely: God is uncreated grace itself. God „happens“ to humanity as an „event“—more precisely, it can happen to any person, even in the „secular age“, unexpectedly. A person can only bear witness to such an event without thereby comprehending the incomprehensible God. Thus, it can be said that God gives himself and simultaneously „withdraws“, remaining hidden, concealed, which opens a space of freedom for humanity. Despite all its incomprehensibility, the event can nevertheless be witnessed.

Similarly, the risen Christ „appeared“ to his disciples at the Sea of Tiberias. Disillusioned after Jesus' shameful death, they had returned to their former profession as fishermen. Now, while fishing, the disciples „saw him“ standing on the shore and perceived him speaking to them. But at first, they did not know who he was. Only John recognised him, not with his physical eyes, not with his mind, but with his loving heart. And later, all the others recognised him by his characteristic breaking of bread and grilling of fish over a charcoal fire, the very fire that had reminded Peter of his betrayal during the Passion narrative (John 21:1-14). This event of the encounter with the risen Christ also ultimately remains incomprehensible. But the disciples bore witness to it. Christian faith thrives precisely on such testimonies of encounters with the risen Christ. Thus, the Apostle Paul, the apostle to Europe, could write to the Church in the port city of Corinth about the core of the Gospel:

Now I should remind you, brothers and sisters, of the good news hat I proclaimed to you, which you in turn received, in which also you stand, through which also you are being saved, if you hold firmly to the message that I proclaimed to you—unless you have come to believe in vain. For I handed on to you as of first importance what I in turn had received: that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the scriptures, and that he was buried, and that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the scriptures, and that he appeared to Cephas, then to the twelve. Then he appeared to more than five hundred brothers and sisters at one time, most of whom are still alive, though some have died. Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles. Last of all, as to someone untimely born, he appeared also to me. For I am the least of the apostles, unfit to be called an apostle, because I persecuted the church of God. But by the grace of God I am what I am, and his grace towards me has not been in vain. On the contrary, I worked harder than any of them—though it was not I, but the grace of God that is with me. Whether then it was I or they, so we proclaim and so you have come to believe. (1 Corinthians 15:1-11)

In the process of God's self-revelation, the image, the icon, plays a significant role.¹⁶ It forms the core of the Christian faith. This icon of God is Jesus, in whom the Father reveals himself through his Son in human form. Jesus is the visible image of the invisible God (Colossians 1:15-20), his icon. However, the image is not given to us so that our gaze falls upon it. Rather, an icon reverses the direction of our gaze. We do not look at the image, but through the image, God, who gives himself, reveals himself to us. He makes himself manifest, reveals himself.

Catholic scholastic theology uses the term sacrament for the image, the icon¹⁷. Christ is then considered the fundamental sacrament.¹⁸ The Church, in turn, is the primordial sacrament, which unfolds in sacramental celebrations.¹⁹ An invisible event, God's self-giving, becomes visible and thus accessible and effective to human sensory experience. But even here, the following remains true: such an event, which occurs „from elsewhere”²⁰, can be witnessed, but not fathomed by the intellect and therefore not fully comprehended. Human response is not „comprehension“, but rather “being embraced“ and „grasping“ (Philippians 2:12), which culminates in grateful praise and sharing the story with others. It is like the event of Jesus' miraculous healing of ten lepers: „When one of them saw that he was healed, he returned and praised God with a loud voice. He fell down before Jesus and thanked him“ (Luke 17:15-16; also Mark 1:45).

Iconic practise of the Church

Firstly, the Church itself is iconic and as such the „primordial sacrament”: „The Church is an icon insofar as it does not show itself, but the body of Christ, whose appearance it bears.”²¹ The Church itself is not an institution, but the Body of Christ, which it receives, represents and passes on. It does not exhibit itself, but is permeable to God's gift to it.

The celebrating community, the Church and its preachers point beyond themselves to the risen Christ. The Church is thus iconic when, in its actions, it does not reveal itself, but rather the one upon whom it is founded. This makes the Church, as it were, a continuos „Epiphany“, a manifestation of the Lord. Or, to use another familiar Catholic image: the Church is a monstrance. It displays (monstrare) a sacred reality that mysteriously transcends it—namely, the Body of Christ.

This iconic aspect of the Church unfolds initially in two dimensions: the iconicity of the Word and the iconicity of sacramental celebrations. It is like the life of Jesus himself, who, as the image of the invisible God, allows his Father to shine forth and „glorify” him both in his parables and in his miracles (John 14:11²²).

The iconic word is spoken in the proclamation of the entrusted Word of God, written down in the holy books.²³ As such, it makes the one given to us and surrendered for us, the crucified and risen Christ, appear. Proclamation does not live on the argumentative word, but on the presentative word.²⁴ Thus, the proclaimed word is not information and certainly not indoctrination, but the event of a gift, a „present“. The word of proclamation points beyond itself to the one who speaks: Christ, the Word of God.²⁵

The sacramental celebrations, especially baptism and the Eucharist, are also iconic. They, too, are events of God's self-giving. And for them, too, it is true that in their celebrations God reliably reveals himself in his incomprehensible abundance. What „happens“ in them can be experienced and witnessed through the senses, but not fully comprehended.

Called to testify

God, who gives himself in his abundance, cannot be „grasped“ or „comprehended“. But the event of his surprising self-revelation can be witnessed by the communities and those „added“ to them. In this way, the gift becomes a call, a vocation to share what has been experienced. “For out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaks“ (Luke 6:45). Filled with the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, the apostles could not help but proclaim the mighty deeds of God (Acts 2:11).

A call to a person comes not only from God, but also, in a similar way, from those others who reveal themselves to us as needy, suffering and wounded. Thus, the Church does not so much proactively devise plans for a well-organised, charitable and political diaconal service, but rather allows itself to be called first by the needs of others. Its diaconal action is then the response to the concrete call of others who, in their distress, „approach“ me. The Bible emphasizes that it is precisely in the poor, the sick, the imprisoned and the refugees that we encounter and are „called“ by the risen Christ himself. In the other, the hidden, risen Christ also calls to us (Mt 25:31-46).

Added

The Church is thus the result of God’s calling and of the acceptance of this call by each individual who joins the community of sisters and brothers. The believer has not only²⁶ contemplated and existentially accepted the event of God, who „revealed“ himself to him through the work of the Holy Spirit. Rather, as Scripture says, he (this also applies to women) has been „added“ to the ecclesial community in order to participate in the life and activities of the Church in his own unique way.

„Those who accepted his word were baptised; about three thousand were added to their number that day.” (Acts 2:41)

„The Lord added to their number daily those who were being saved.” (Acts 2:47)

„More and more people, both men and women, were added to their number who believed in the Lord.” (Acts 5:14)

„And a great number were added to the Lord.” (Acts 11:24)

Those added to the Church, sometimes even before baptism, were given the Holy Spirit.²⁷ Christian Churches celebrate the addition of a person to the Church in the sacramental „incorporation into the Church“, which welcomes into their community those who have heard God's call and accepted it in faith.²⁸ The celebration of incorporation into the Church encompasses the sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation as its culmination and the Eucharist. These are a solemn praise for God's previent action toward this person, who has chosen them and „added“ them to his people. This praise then extends beyond this biblical understanding. The sacrament becomes a celebratory proclamation before the whole world: it praises what God intends for all people. For are not all children, sons and daughters of God, since their creation?²⁹ The image of the child of God likely had both a narrower and a broader meaning: the narrower one encompasses the members of God's people in the first and second covenants, the broader one all people.

In light of the dramatic religious decline in many regions of Europe, there is good reason to be concerned about the future of the Church in the secular age. Those who are concerned will trust in faith that even today—often without our pastoral intervention—God reveals himself to many, especially young, people in surprising ways, calling them, enticing and empowering them to accept the call, to bear witness to it, both individually and together with others in a community of the called and to act accordingly. Church members anxious about the future can ask God to reveal himself to enough people today, to call them spiritually and to add them to a community of the Gospel, so that the Church of Jesus Christ remains vibrant and active among us. Ecclesiogenesis, especially in the secular age, stands or falls on God's action, his revealing of himself, his calling and his grace, which enables the free acceptance of the call. Why shouldn't God do this?

The Churches could then accompany those whom God calls by telling them about such a surprising possibility and encouraging them to enter into existential solitude before God, to allow themselves to be opened and gifted by God, in order to begin to bear witness to this and to orient their lives accordingly.³⁰

Kenotic service

In all its iconic expressions of life, the Church is characterised by serving, self-sacrificing, even humbling—biblically speaking, „kenotic”³¹. It thus follows the example of Jesus, of whom the Philippians hymn says: „He humbled himself and became obedient to death, even death on a cross“ (Philippians 2:8). Just as God, whom it portrays, acts not with violence but in self-sacrificing, „kenotic“ love, so too does the Church seek to reveal the true God.

This obligates the Church to resist in her actions everything that perverts its kenotic, service-oriented fundamental attitude. This forbids a truly Christian Church all forms of spiritual or sexual manipulation, indoctrination, authoritarianism and clericalism. The title of a book by Jacquet Gaillot (1935-2022), initially a controversial bishop in Évreux, France, and then—removed from his position as diocesan bishop by Rome—titular bishop in Partenia from 1995 to 2023, aptly states: „A Church that does not serve is of no use!“³² Even more, it betrays its mission, perverts its essence and loses its kenotic quality. This attitude of kenosis obligates all baptised members of the Church, including the ordained. Their culture of ministry, recommended by Jesus to the disciples, is shown in the images of the servant at the tables (Luke 22:24-27), the rowing galley slave (Philippians 2:6-20), the shepherd (Ezekiel 34:2-6, 11, 15f, 20-22; John 10:11-18), the foot washer (John 13:1-20).

1. Zulehner, Paul M.: For you anticipate our actions with your grace. Paul M. Zulehner in conversation with Karl Rahner, Düsseldorf 1984, Ostfildern ² 2002.

2. Immediately after his election, he assured the assembled cardinals: „And in this context, I would like us to renew together today our full endorsement of this path which the universal Church has been following for decades in the wake of the Second Vatican Council. Pope Francis has excellently recalled and updated its content in the Apostolic Exhortation Evangelii Gaudium, some of which I would like to highlight: the return to the primacy of Christ in proclamation (cf. no. 11); the missionary conversion of the entire Christian community (cf. no. 9); growth in collegiality and synodality (cf. no. 33); attention to the sensus fidei (cf. nos. 119-120), especially in its most typical and inclusive forms, such as popular piety (cf. no. 123); loving care for the least of the outcasts (cf. no. 53); and courageous and trusting dialogue with today’s world and its diverse elements and circumstances (cf. no. 84; Second Vatican Council, Pastoral Constitution Gaudium et spes, 1-2)“. https://www.vaticannews.va/de/papst/news/2025-05/papst-leo-xiv-ansprache-kardinaele-wortlaut-namenswahl. html (4 July 2026)

3. „The history of mankind is, in the deepest sense, the history of salvation. ” de Lubac, Henri: Catholicisme. Les aspects sociaux du dogme, Paris 1947, 35. De Lubac consequently also rejects the so-called „two-floor doctrine nature below, grace above: „L’ordre surnaturel n’est pas un second étage ajouté à l’ordre naturel, mais sa vérité intime.“ de Lubac, Henri: Surnaturel, Paris 1946, 452 – „World history is salvation history. ” Rahner, Karl: Schriften zur Theologie VII, Einsiedeln 1966, 25. – „Grace is not a separate realm alongside the world, but the deepest dimension of the world itself.“ Idem: Basic Course of Faith, Freiburg 1976, 114.

4. This term has a long tradition: Origen: Contra Celsum, Cambridge 1953, VIII, 67. - Rahner, Karl: Grundkurs des Glaubens. Einführung in den Begriff des Christentums, Freiburg i.  Br. 1976, 84. - Thomas Aquinas: Summa theologiae, I, q.  104, a.  1 (ed. Leonina, Rome 1888), 285. - Halik, Tomáš: Night of Faith. Religion in a Post-Secular World, Freiburg i.  Br. 2021, 58.

5. „L'amour is the soul force qui unity et qui fait croître.“ Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre: Le Phénomène humain, Paris 1955, 260f.

6. The Scottish geologist Hugh Miller (1802-1856), a Protestant, described his vision of the goal of evolution a few years before Charles Darwin published his bestseller „The Origin of Species“ (1859): „What, I ask, is the essence of Earth's history, or of the history of creation? The essential thing in both is progress. In both, we find the ascent from dead matter to humble, then to higher forms of life. But is this ascent complete? No. God still makes higher things follow lower ones. Now God is preparing poor man for a higher status. The work of the seventh day is redemption. Finally, creation and creator will unite at one point to become one person. The ascent from dead matter to man was God's goal. From the beginning, this point of union. True God and true man. You recognize the Lord worthy of worship of all future“. Quoted in the lecture by Bresch, Carsten: Evolution – Gap and Bridge between Faith and Knowledge, Freiburg 1981 (Catholic Academy). https://www.ub.uni-freiburg. de/recherche/digitale-bibliothek/podcasts/rede-des-monats/ (8. 7. 2025)

7. The Incarnation, as the union of God with humanity/creation, is also a concrete event within a long history that lasts from creation to its completion. Thus, just as one can speak of a „creatio continua“, so too can one speak of an „incarnatio continua“.“The Incarnation is not complete, but rather an incarnatio continua“. (Rahner, Karl: Grundkurs des Glaubens. Einführung in den Begriff des Christentums, Freiburg Br. 1976, 215.

8. „Christ is the eternal beginning and the final fulfillment of all creation. ” Rohr, Richard: The Universal Christ. How a Forgotten Reality Can Change Everything We See, Hope For and Believe, New York 2019, 13.

9. Rohr devotes an entire chapter to this end-times vision in: The Universal Christ: Ibid., 29-49.

10. I refer in advance to the French neophenomenologist Marion, Jean ‑Luc: The Revelation – from elsewhere, Eichstätt 2025.

11. Johann B. Metz put it succinctly: „We have made a god that suits us out of an unsuitable god“. Metz, Johann Baptist: The Unsuitable God, in: Johann Baptist Metz/Johann Reikerstorfer/Jürgen Werbick: Discourse on God, Münster 21996.  25–32, here p.  27. – „The God who readily fits us does not exist… we must always reckon with a God who does not fit.“ Idem: Crisis of God – Crisis of the Church, in: Theology in Perilous Times, Freiburg 1995.  11–24, here 15.

12. This is how Benedict XVI preached at World Youth Day in Cologne in 2005: „This first fundamental transformation from violence to love, from death to life, then brings about further transformations. Bread and wine become his body and his blood. But the transformation must not stop here; it must only begin fully here. The body and blood of Jesus Christ are given to us so that we may be transformed. We ourselves are to become the body of Christ, related to him by blood. We all eat the one bread. This means: we are made one with one another. Worship, as we said, becomes union. God is no longer merely the wholly Other to us. He is in ourselves and we in him. His dynamism permeates us and wants to extend from us to others and to the world as a whole, so that his love may truly become the dominant measure of the world. ” https://www.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/de/homilies/2005/documents/hf_ben-xvi_hom_20050821_20th-world-youth-day. html (4. 7. 2026)

13. Rahner, Karl: Basic Course of Faith. Introduction to the Concept of Christianity, Freiburg i.  Br. 1976, 120.

14. Rahner, Karl: Hearers of the Word. On the Foundation of a Philosophy of Religion, München 1941, 22.

15. Rahner, Karl: Basic Course of Faith. Introduction to the Concept of Christianity, Freiburg i.  Br. 1976, 120.

16. Marion's concept of the icon is related to the orthodox dogmatics of John of Damascus (On orthodox icon theology: John of Damascus: De imaginibus orationes tres, ed. and trans. by Bonifatius Kotter, in: The Writings of John of Damascus, Vol.  III (Contra imaginum calumniatores), Berlin/New York 1975, 1 – 94. - Ouspensky, Leonid/Lossky, Vladimir: The Meaning of Icons, Crestwood, New York 1982). Orthodox theology, which the Second Council of Nicaea (787) also dealt with (Council of Nicaea II (787): Acta, in: Conciliorum Oecumenicorum Decreta, vol.  1, Bologna 1973, 135-164. - Jaroslav Pelikan: The Spirit of Eastern Christendom (600–1700), Chicago 1974, esp.  102–115). – Hans Belting understands the icon as a passage, not as a representation. It points beyond itself to the one depicted. It is epiphanic, not representational. Seen in this light, in Marion's language game, the icon is not an idol, but a visible indication of the invisible; the honor shown to the image is transferred to the archetype (Belting, Hans: Image and Cult, München 1990, Chapter 102–115).  4) - On Marion and Orthodoxy: Pizzi, Matías Ignacio: The Phenomenological Counter ‑Intentionality of the Icon. Jean ‑Luc Marion's Reception of Nicholas of Cusa's Eicona Dei, in: Forum Philosophicum 28/2 (2023) 261–273. - Murga, Ezequiel D.: Between Object and Event. The Iconic Object in Jean ‑Luc Marion, in: Forum Philosophicum (2026). – Bär, Johannes/Benga, Daniel/Klose, Stefan (eds.): Image and Icon in Jean ‑Luc Marion. Commentary on „The Opening of the Visible”, Göttingen 2026. - In his work, the Leipzig painter Michael Triegel attempts to make the invisible visible. Using the techniques of the Old Masters, he is on the trail of the secret. His new painting „Doxa” conceals what cannot be shown, thus giving space to the longing for beauty and transcendence. https://www.herder.de/communio/kultur/ein-gespraech-mit-dem-maler-michael-triegel-ueber-sein-bild-doxa-am-farbigen-abglanz-haben-wir-das-leben-/ (24. 7. 2026)

17. The Doctor of the Church Thomas Aquinas defines: „Sacramentum proprie dicitur quod est signum alicuius- sacri rei in quantum est sanctificans hominem. ” Thomas Aquinas, STh III, q. 60, a. 2. - In scholastic school books you can read: „Sacramentum est signum visibile, divinitus institutum, ad sanctificandum hominis significandum et efficiendum. ”

18. „Christ is the primordial sacrament of man’s encounter with God.” Rahner, Karl: Schriften zur Theologie IV, Einsiedeln 1960, 224.

19. „The Church is the primordial sacrament in which and from which the individual sacraments receive their sacramental structure“. Ibid., 227.

20. This event can effectively interpret the doctrine that, according to scholastic theology, sacraments are effective „ex opere opterato“, that is, from within themselves, solely bound to the action of God and thus independent of the action of the one presiding over the celebration of a sacrament. Sacraments are therefore always valid, even if a „minister“ is unworthy. This not only protects the „recipient“ but also emphasizes that the agent is the risen Christ himself, revealing himself. As the Council of Trent states: „If someone were to say that sacraments, by themselves, according to the new law, are effective ex opere operato, not conferring grace... would be unacceptable“. (Denzinger ‑Hünermann 1608)

21. Marion, Jean ‑Luc: Etant donné. Essai d'une phénoménologie de la donation, Paris 1997, 268.

22. „This illness is not unto death, but for the glory of God, that the Son of God may be glorified through it. ” (John 11:4) Also: „Whatever you ask in my name, I will do, so that the Father may be glorified in the Son.“ (John 14:13)

23. Here, iconicity is not a concept related to images, but rather a phenomenological concept related to structure.

24. „Presentational words are those linguistic constructs in which the sensory-symbolic forms of interaction are condensed.“ Lorenzer, Alfred: The Council of Accountants. The Destruction of Sensuality, Frankfurt 1981, 45.

25. „The word does not reveal itself, but rather makes the one who speaks appear.“ Marion, Jean ‑Luc: The Gift of Visibility. Studies on the Phenomenology of the Gift, München 2004, 112.

26. Thus, Paul could write to the Christians in Corinth: “But to each one the manifestation of the Spirit is given for the common good. ” (1 Corinthians 12:7)

27. „While Peter was still saying this, the Holy Spirit descended on all who heard the word. The Jewish believers who had come with Peter were astonished that the gift of the Holy Spirit was poured out even on the Gentiles, for they heard them speaking in tongues and praising God. Peter said, ‘Can anyone withhold water for baptism from these people who have received the Holy Spirit just as we have?’ And he commanded them to be baptised in the name of Jesus Christ. ” (Acts 10:44-48)

28. Infant baptism is a special topic in pastoral theology that will not be discussed here. Kasper, Walter (ed.): Being Christian without a Decision or Should the Church Baptize Children?, Mainz 1970.

29. „God created mankind in his own image. ” (Genesis 1:26) – „Do we not all have one Father? Did not one God create us?” (Malachi 2:10) – „We are his offspring.“ (Acts 17:28)

30. In a lecture, I compared such a vocation to precious truffles in Provence, hidden in the vast forest of Churches. Does the Church, therefore, need a kind of pastoral truffle dog, a truffle pig, to uncover these hidden jewels? It could develop a kind of vocation coaching program for this purpose. (Kaiser, Alexander: Integral Life Management. A Path to More Meaning and Success, Wien 2013. - Kaiser, Franz: Vocation Coaching. Paths to Discovering One's Own Vocation, Ostfildern 2014.)

31. Recent theology (Hans Urs von Balthasar), but also philosophy (Gianni Vattimo, Jean-Luc Marion) emphasize this kenotic fundamental characteristic of Church life and business (see Part 3).

32. Gaillot, Jacques: A Church that does not serve is of no use. Experiences of a bishop, Freiburg–Basel–Wien 1992.

The Church supports the religious option in the secular age.

To these genuinely pastoral-theological considerations on ecclesiogenesis, a pastoral-sociological aspect must be added. The crucial keyword in this regard is „plausibility structure“. This relates to the previously reported finding that recent surveys reveal a close statistical correlation between the frequency of Sunday Church attendance and the Christian character of the believer's option. The more regular the interaction with a congregation celebrating worship, the more likely the believer's option is to be Christian in character.

Communicating accompany

From the perspective of a sociology of knowledge, the Church community and regular exchange within it prove to be supportive in a secular age. The highly individual experience of vocation can be developed and strengthened through the community of the Gospel. It accompanies people on the path of accepting their irreplaceable vocation. Through the narrated Gospel, it offers a proven interpretation of what happens to a called person from God and what follows from this for their future life.

An example of this is described in the Acts of the Apostles. The risen Christ appears to Saul, a fanatical persecutor of Christians in the early Church, completely unexpectedly. This happening practically throws him from his horse and blinds him. With this unique experience, he then travels to the Church in Damascus to a follower of the Way¹ named Ananias. There, with the help of the Gospel narratives and the experiences of the early Church, the „blind“ man is able to „see“ and interpret what he has experienced. Paul learns from Ananias to „grasp“ and understand what it means to be „grasped“ by the risen Christ (Philippians 3:12). In this way, he is able to mature into a leading figure in the young movement. Immediately, after only a few days of study, he begins to do what he was compelled to do: to bear witness (Acts 9:1-22).

1. This is the oldest honorific title of Christians (Acts 9:2; 19:9; 19:23; 22:4; 24:14; 24:22).

Living with inner diversity and cognitive stress

To conclude this section, I will address an observation made by Peter L. Berger in his latest work on the sociology of religion. He notes that the ideological pluralism of contemporary society, the diversity of options in the secular age, is highly likely reflected in the consciousness of its members.¹ After all, individuals move within spheres of life shaped by different worldviews. These influences, albeit with varying degrees of intensity, impact individuals through expectations and formative attitudes. Furthermore, individuals likely differ in their plasticity: Are they at all and if so, to what extent, can they be shaped by such sometimes contradictory influences? The result could then be that contemporaries harbour interpretations that are sometimes contradictory, or at least fraught with tension, interpretations derived from and reinforced by these different spheres of life.²

Firstly, a few examples. The first comes from recent European history. In communist-controlled areas, religious people lived amidst an aggressively indoctrinating and demanding atheist society that put them under intense pressure because of their faith. The influence of their own religious community, as well as that of the atheist public, inevitably created immense cognitive stress. Those affected reacted very differently in their psychological state and their subsequent actions.

A considerable number of Church officials transformed into priests of peace (Friedenspriester). They clearly found common ground to reduce tension, such as the commitment of both the Gospel and the Communist Party to world peace. They chose the path of small compromises.

Other Christians, in their own words, rejected the secular option in its authoritarian communist guise. They publicly opposed it, becoming ideological „dissidents“ who were promptly reclassified by those in power as political dissidents and consequently persecuted. Their efforts to reduce internal tensions in favour of their attacked faith led many to martyrdom. This example of the persecution of believing Christians is unfortunately not a thing of the past. There are still many persecuted Christians worldwide.

Today, cognitive stress is, in most cases, not caused by ideological opponents of a religious option. Rather, it arises within pluralistic societies that guarantee religious freedom to both religious communities and individual believers. Must we not assume that the secular option is also present in people who have chosen a religious option? Must religious people then also grapple with this secular option? Do not, then, at least two souls dwell within the breast of religious people? In this way, do they come close to the traditional prayer of the disciple Thomas, whom we call the unbeliever: „Lord, I believe; help my unbelief!” (Mark 9:24)

There are good examples of this. A religious gynecologist works in a hospital that performs abortions. He will inevitably face the question of how to respond.

Or consider a completely different example: In our religiously mobile times, the tradition of faith is rapidly changing from one generation to the next. Believing grandparents are dealing with „grandchildren without God”³. Mutual love and appreciation of a life of faith are subjected to various tensions when faith is lost within a particular family. How can believing grandparents communicate with their secular grandchildren without damaging their mutual love?

Cognitive stress also arises when believers in a democratic culture experience that decisions are made differently in their professional lives than in their Church. This is particularly true in the Catholic Church. While members of the Catholic Church experience a creative blend of consultation and decision-making in their professional lives, thus occupying a high position on the participation ladder (Sherry Arnstein⁴) in the secular sphere, they find their own Church at a much lower position on this ladder.⁵ This, too, creates cognitive stress.

The stance of their own Church on gender equality is deeply troubling for devout young women. They experience it as discriminatory that, because they are women, they are denied access to ordained ministry for reasons that are now difficult to comprehend.

Well-trained lay people employed by the Catholic Church who are wholeheartedly committed to their work experience great stress when they are denied the opportunity to preach during the Eucharist, while less-trained deacons are not, simply because the latter are ordained. They perceive such a decision from Rome as demeaning, clerical and stressful.

In his letter, the Apostle Paul gives an example that is increasingly relevant today (1 Corinthians 7:8-16). He tells of a married couple. Both are unbelievers. But then God, through his grace, awakens in the wife a conversion to the gospel. She is baptised. Now, within this one marriage live individuals from different worlds with incompatible priorities⁶, which—it is assumed here—are reflected in both. This „casus“, the specific case Paul describes, leads us to the important question of how to deal with it.

A first finding is already significant. Paul, for whom the option of faith is more important than being bound to a partner who remains an unbeliever, advocates for considerable freedom. The wife who has come to faith can remain in the marriage if the unbelieving husband consents. Paul justifies this with the assumption that the wife's decision for faith also shapes the unbelieving husband. Paul: „The unbelieving husband is sanctified through his wife and the unbelieving wife is sanctified through her brother“ (1 Corinthians 7:14). However, Paul also considers it possible that the husband might not want to be subject to the influence of his partner who has come to faith. Even then, the apostle speaks in favour of freedom for the sake of marital and, presumably, inner peace: „But if the unbeliever wants to separate, he should do so. The brother or sister is not bound as a slave in such a case; God has called you to live in peace“ (1 Corinthians 7:15). With this second version, Paul indirectly casts doubt on the first possibility. There, he still emphasizes the hoped-for „shared sanctification“. However, he sees this more as the beginning of a possible conversion of the unbeliever to faith. But whether such grace is bestowed upon the unbelieving partner, he must honestly leave open. Therefore, he concludes by asking: „Woman, how do you know whether you can save your husband? Or, husband, how do you know whether you can save your wife?“ (1 Corinthians 7:16)

If one wants to move beyond the linguistic game of grace, then one can ask, from a psychological perspective: How much inner contradiction can people tolerate? How much is reasonable for them? In any case, people living in such contradictions must develop an appropriate „art of living“. This art, however, takes on quite different typological forms.

For the sake of clarity, I will assume for the following considerations that a single person embodies both a secular and a religious option. Our model person has chosen the religious option and thus simultaneously rejected the secular option. But even as a „rejected secular option“, it remains present in the individual's mind, diminishing the self-evidence of the religious option, causing tension in the form of „cognitive stress“ and potentially transforming the one-time decision for the religious option into a kind of constantly questioned and revisable „ongoing decision“. One doesn't just make a decision once, but must also stand by it and renew it repeatedly. For example, Christian Churches don't just celebrate the one-time ceremony of baptism, but also renew baptismal vows every Easter Vigil. Similarly, the vows exchanged with a loved one at their wedding are not only commemorated on special anniversaries, but are „renewed“ in liturgies on such days.

The following are some typical ways of dealing with this tension-filled „internal pluralism“, which reflects societal pluralism. The focus will be on the tension between the Church and today's secular world, a tension that deeply affects believers. How do they cope with the „cognitive stress“ they experience and endure? Or, to put it in the words of those affected: How can one be a devout Christian in a secular age?

Switching

A first, seemingly simple life strategy amidst these tensions can be a developed ability to switch. Now, the sometimes contradictory possibilities, the structures of relevance, coexist in their tension. People adapt according to the requirements. In Church, they are religious; in the hospital, secular. The Hindu pilot adheres to the secular manual on approach to Delhi. Then, he devoutly goes to the temple to make an offering. Something similar happened during the time of communism. Party officials were upright comrades in party assemblies. In the private circle of their families, they had their children baptised.

Reforms

While switching is more of a passive-defensive tactic against stress, advocating for reforms is considered an active-creative approach. The aim is to reduce stress by modifying one or more options through reform.

Thus, Church reforms are being demanded. A democratisation of many Church processes is being called for, one that fully respects the fact that the Church owes its existence to the work of God and is not a self-organised group of religiously needy individuals. Gender equality should also be implemented within the Church. Ordained ministers and in the future female ministers – in a first step deacons - should be free to choose their way of life. The outdated language used in the liturgy should be updated. Work is underway to further develop those dogmas that were shaped by the language and thought patterns of earlier philosophies and are awaiting historical scrutiny. These include the concept of personhood in Trinitarian theology, the doctrine of transubstantiation, discourse about God and the understanding of the crucifixion within the linguistic framework of sacrifice, to name just a few important examples.

Reform-minded religious people can also look to the secular world and shape it in a way that causes less tension with their faith. Much has already been said about this in the preceding sections. It's about the shift from a secularism that threatens religion to a secularity that is compatible with religion. If this succeeds, it can reduce tensions between secular and religious communities. Unexpected synergies may even become possible.

Reforms are not the only strategy for mitigating cognitive stress by modifying the content of options. So far, the term used has been aggiornamento, an update, a bringing things up to date. However, some are going in precisely the opposite direction. They are eradicating everything they deem „modernist“ in the secular world as well as in their own Churches. Thus, in lockstep, politics and the Church are fighting against openness to „diversity“, re-traditionalising gender roles and fighting to erode liberal freedoms. Secular and religious, populist and fundamentalist circles are forming coalitions, especially among young people. Cognitive stress is reduced by aligning secular and religious interpretations. A „right-wing alliance“ is emerging.

Evade

Christians experiencing cognitive stress related to their Church also have the option of finding alternatives. For example, Catholic women may join a Reformed Church and become pastors there. Switching to Old Catholicism also occurs. In this way, some of the stress associated with their own Church can be left behind.

Even within the Church, people resort to avoidance tactics. In the city, for example, it's possible to escape the stress caused by a poorly designed liturgy or a preacher with an irritating manner of speaking by attending a neighbouring parish. Church-hopping occurs especially when the connection to one's own parish is weak and one is primarily⁷ looking for good religious services. For some, it's a relief to distinguish between the local Church, whose leadership is stressful and the Church in the community, the local group, which generally fares better in surveys. Some⁸ also find solace in differentiating between the Jesus movement and the established Church.⁹ They see themselves as added to the movement of Jesus and are thus willing to accept the specific Church structure.

Retreat

The tension-filled coexistence creates „cognitive stress”.¹⁰ If this becomes unbearable, the temptation to escape it can arise. Consequently, those affected try to banish one or more sources of stress from their lives, distancing themselves from stressful areas and people.

Some then withdraw from their religious community or even from faith itself, gradually beginning to live a purely secular life. If someone is employed by the Church or lives under social constraints that make leaving the Church's sphere of influence, for example by formally leaving the Church, difficult, quite a few embark on the path of inner emigration. The tragic aspect of this supposed solution, which is becoming increasingly widespread, is that inner emigration can easily lead to illness.¹¹

Others don't flee the Church, but escape rather from the “world”. They shield themselves, as best they can, from secular influence in sectarian, sectoid communities. They prefer the company of their own kind. Such a life in a religious bubble is low-stress and offers clarity and security¹², apart from the different kind of stress that sectarian groups exert on their members.

Resilience

There is much discussion today about resilience, or the ability to withstand adversity. This includes talk of Church resilience of communities and Church members.¹³ It consists of such a deep spiritual rootedness in the sacred foundation of the Church that external turmoil cannot shake the Church as it exists. This connection to God reduces stress. Strong, attractive rewards counteract even the most intense, dissipating irritations.¹⁴

In the secular age, a future-oriented Church will therefore strive to provide credible rewards. These all spring from the Gospel, which is woven into people's everyday lives, their joys and hopes, their fears and sorrows.

1. „The co-existence of different religions and the co-existence of religious and secular discourses… occurs both in the minds of individuals and in social space. ” Berger, Peter L.: The Many Altars of Modernity. Toward a Paradigm for Religion in a Pluralist Age, Berlin/Boston 2014, Preface, IX.

2. Just as we speak of multiple modernities and multiple transcendences, we could also speak of multiple affiliations or multiple belonging (Grace Davie). This term is used in theory to describe the formation of a personal identity (George Herbert Mead).

3. Müller, Wunibald: Grandchildren without God. When faith is lost in the family, Freiburg 2026.

4. Arnstein, Sherry R.: A Ladder of Citizen Participation, in: Journal of the American Institute of Planners 35 (1969) 216–224.

5. Zulehner, Paul M.: An epochal opportunity for reform. On the Synodal Path of the Catholic Church, Ostfildern 2021, 69-78.

6. Sociologists of knowledge call these relevance structures. Schütz, Alfred/Luckmann, Thomas: Structures of the Life-World, Vol. 1, Frankfurt a. M. 1979, 57–92. - Schütz, Alfred: The Meaningful Construction of the Social World. An Introduction to Interpretive Sociology, Frankfurt a. M. 1974, 113-140.

7. Zulehner, Paul M.: A Turning Point. Tasks and Opportunities of Church Structural Reforms, Ostfildern 2025.

8. „The assessments of the Church are significantly more positive at the local level – especially within one's own parish – than those of the Church as a whole. ” Pickel, Gert/Hidalgo, Oliver: Church Membership, Church Affiliation and Images of the Church, Freiburg 2022, 45. This is confirmed by Denz, Hermann: Religion in Austria, Wien 2019, 112, who notes for Austria that „the credibility of Church actors at the local level is significantly higher than that of the institutional Church leadership. ” Similarly, Joanneum Research / IHS: The Church as an Economic Factor, Graz 2023, 78, describes the local Church presence as „highly recognised in society,” in contrast to the assessment of the Church as a whole.

9. The Jesus movement was an intra-Jewish renewal movement initiated by Jesus... It is clearly to be distinguished from the later Church as an institutionalised entity“. Theißen, Gerd: Sociology of the Jesus Movement, München 1977, 17.

10. „Pluralism creates cognitive stress because it ‑destroys the taken-for-granted of the traditional world.” Berger, The Compulsion to Heresy, 17. – Social psychology deals primarily with cognitive stress: Schmidtchen, Gerhard: What is sacred to the Germans. Religious and political currents in the Federal Republic of Germany, München 1979. This arises when someone feels that the Church does not fit into our time.

11. Joas, Hans, writes about inner emigration as a loss of connection leading to experiences of disintegration in: Die Macht des Heiligen (The Power of the Sacred), Frankfurt a. M. 2017, 245–249. Charles Taylor also addresses disengagement, which he describes as the „disease of alienation”: Taylor, Charles: A Secular Age, Cambridge MA 2007, 302–306. – Further relevant analyses can be found in Grün, Anselm: Mut zur Entscheidung (Courage to Decide), Freiburg 2014, 55–60 (inner emigration as „psychological self-poisoning”) and in Bucher, Rainer: Kirche in der Zerreißprobe (Church in Crisis), Würzburg 2019, 71–76 (inner emigration as a „chronic situation of being overwhelmed”).

12. Máté ‑Tóth andrás / Szilárdi, Réka: Szekuritizáció és vallás KeletKözépEurópában. Elméleti felvetés (Securitisation and religion in East ‑Central Europe. A theoretical approach), in: REGIO 30 (1), 2022, 26–43.

13. „Resilience is not the congregation’s capacity to survive by its own strength, but its capacity to be held by a reality beyond itself. Root Andrew: The Congregation in a Secular Age. Keeping Sacred Time against the Speed of Modern Life, Grand Rapids 2021, 214. – „Resilience refers to the ability of Church practice not only to survive crises, but also to transform them into learning processes.“ Grethlein, Christian: Practical Theology, Berlin–Boston 2012 89. – „Church resilience is demonstrated by the fact that organisations can maintain their core function – religious communication – despite external shocks. ” Gärtner, Stefan: Resilience of Church Organisations, Freiburg i.  Br. 2019, 47. – „Resilient communities are characterised by a high capacity for self-reflection and creative adaptation to changing social conditions.” Schlag, Thomas: Church in Transformation, Zürich 2020, 132. – „Resilience in religious communities often emerges where traditions are flexible enough to be reinterpreted without losing their core identity.” Woodhead, Linda: Religion and Change in Modern Britain, London 2012, 15“. Resilient congregations maintain strong networks of relationships that allow them to absorb disruptions and reorganize without losing coherence.“ Ammerman, Nancy T.: Congregations and Community, New Brunswick 1997, 203.

14. Zulehner, Paul M.: Transformation. Religions and Churches Amidst Cultural Transformation, Ostfildern 2020, 15f. ; 94; 179.

Another Type of Summary

The image of bread touches me. The „bread of life“ is not something that the Church or its offices can possess, administer or distribute. It is not Church property. It is daily spiritual nourishment: truth, conscience, compassion, responsibility. It is precisely here that the boundary of the Church and its offices becomes clear. They are meant to serve. They are meant to accompany, to order and to remind. But they are not the source of life from truth. They are pointers, paths and mediators. Their measure is not power. Their measure is only this: Do they sharpen conscience? Do they lead people to inner truth? Or do they distance them from it? The true manna lies within conscience itself. In dreams. In responsible action. In quietly listening to the truth. There, people encounter truth directly. Without external demands. Without ecclesiastical decree. There, it is decided whether they truly live or merely function. Only from this inner nourishment grows a life that sustains, liberates and endures. ¹

I will attempt a summary by describing, as Karl Rahner once put it, the „pious person of tomorrow“. How is it possible to be „a believing Christian“ in the secular age? This refers to both women and men. Therefore I use the plural “devout Christians”.

Two sources: benevolent grace and observable signs of the times

Devout Christians live in the secular age from two sources: grace, which precedes all action and a keen awareness of the signs of the times. Both belong together: the devout Christian reflects on the fact that God acts before they themselves act. At the same time, they learn to see the present without embellishment and to interpret it in the light of the Gospel. This contemporary, culturally sensitive Christianity is not about conformity, but rather an aggiornamento: tradition and situation are creatively combined.

Respect freedom, do not judge morally

Devout Christians respect the freedom of others. They understand their own mission in a dialogical and culturally sensitive way: through their own faithful and credible life, they keep the option of faith open to others, suggest it without pressure and accompany seekers on their path, respecting freedom, responsibility and conscience. At the same time, they take the secular option seriously, do not morally judge anyone and also respect secular experiences of transcendence and the sacred.

Autonomy of earthly realities

Devout Christians value the relative autonomy of earthly realities. They take seriously the fact that the world and society have their own laws and values, which must be recognised, ordered and utilised. They distinguishes between benign secularism and ideological secularism. They works with people of goodwill to develop a universal morality that everyone can share, thus contributing to the common good of the world.

Pluralism is not a threat, but an enrichment.

Devout Christians see the pluralism of the secular age not as a threat, but as an enrichment. They are convinced that God has placed us in this era of history. They experience their faith less as a one-time decision for life, but rather, in the face of competing interpretations, as an ongoing commitment that he renews repeatedly.

Internal pluralism

Devout Christians are acutely aware of the cognitive stress arising from the tensions between the secular and faith-based options, both of which are powerfully present within her. They confront these tensions and do not flee by either leaving the faith community or retreating into a sectarian bubble. They strives to reduce these tensions: by working towards a better secular world and by persistently demanding or sustainably implementing Church reforms towards greater participation, gender equality, renewed language in liturgy and theology and thoughtful developments in doctrine and practice, without losing sight of the core of the Gospel. Because not all tensions can be resolved, they develop a strong Church resilience. To this end, they strengthen the rewards that faith and the Church offer and tries to put Church-related irritations and pressing demands from the secular world into perspective. They know the rule: those who have strong gratifications can endure strong irritations.

Community supports

Devout Christians seek community because, on the one hand, integration into a believing community of the Gospel is an intrinsic consequence of their calling and on the other hand, because faith is plausible where it is shared and authentically lived out together. Regular worship and fellowship within the congregation strengthen their faith and help them to examine and persevere in their vocation. Like Saul with Ananias, they learn, as someone „seised“ by Christ, to „seize“ and understand—by listening to the Gospel and the inherited wisdom of their Church. They trust that God will create a vibrant Church even in times of religious decline.

Iconic

Devout Christiana live an iconic life, cherishing the sacraments: their faith thrives on the fact that the Church and its celebrations reveal not themselves, but Christ. They nourish their faith with the present word, which does not indoctrinate but bestows gifts and with the sacraments, in which God reliably reveals himself without ever allowing himself to be confined by concepts. They see in Christ the icon of God, in the Church the primordial sacrament that receives, represents and passes on. Their first response to God's call is grateful prayer and hymn-like praise in the community of the called. The love they receive compels them to devote themselves to the suffering; through them, too, they allow themselves to be called by God, who prefers to hide himself in the poor and oppressed.

Kenotic

A devout Christians live and serve kenotically. They measure themselves against the self-emptying of Jesus. Like Christ, whom they follow, they avoids all forms of spiritual or sexual exploitation, indoctrination, authorianism and clericalism. They are convinced that a Church that does not serve fails herself; accordingly, they practice attitudes of service. These unfold in attentiveness, responsibility, humility, a critique of violence, solidarity and a moral universalism. This attitude and its manifestations can be interpreted both as secular virtues and as modes of action of the Spirit of God.

Looking for God's hiding places

Devout Christians anticipate God's surprising, discreet coming even in the secular age. Therefore, They first look for „hiding places of God“ in their own life—where great love and great suffering arise, at turning points in life and in liturgical celebrations that involve people and touch them existentially. This makes them sensitive to how even people with a secular background open themselves to what is not tangible: a profound sense of a mystery in which we live, move and in which we are (Acts 17:28).

Therefore

This is how being a Christian becomes concretely possible in a secular world: sustained by grace, grounded in today's secular age, nourished in the Church, serving in society, engaging in dialogue with those of different beliefs, resilient in the face of tension and sensitive to perceiving God's hidden places. In all things, God precedes all our actions – and calls individuals and communities to bear witness to what they have experienced.

1. Hans Gamma in a comment on my blog from July 3, 2026. https://wp. me/p2SjGC-1l2 % 23comment-3930 (July 9, 2026)

Coda

Where does a person begin to pray? Either in the wonder of joy or in the greatest distress, in those situations where we say, „I was completely beside myself“ and in these moments even people who otherwise don't believe in God in any way cry out „My God“ and that gives some kind of expression to it. „My God“ and that is actually the most primal form of prayer. (Steindl Rast ¹ )

The New Mexico mystic Richard Rohr believes that – as mentioned above – God is most likely to be found hiding where „great love and great suffering” ² occur. There are stories that can be told to support this. Here follow some.

Jonathan Wittenberg, rabbi of the North London New Synagogue, participated in an ecumenical service at Babi Yar near Kyiv. There, in September 1941, Nazi henchmen murdered over 30,000 Jews in two nights. “Where is God in this senseless war?“ he asked, looking at the Greek Catholic bishop from Kyiv who was also attending the memorial service. His answer: „Could God be hidden in a Russian soldier fighting in a Ukrainian trench?”³

For Teresa of Calcutta, those dying alone in the streets were God's hiding places.⁴ When she knelt before them, she was certain that God, though hidden, was just as present in them as in the tabernacle before which she knelt in adoration.

Could it be a noble task of pastoral care to sensitize even and especially those who have chosen a secular path to such „hidden places of God“ in the secular world and in their own lives? Could turning points in life, for example, be times of connection because hopes and fears clash during these periods, a newborn child brings joy, love gives wings and grief over loss weighs down?

I not only prepare liturgies for such rites de passage together with those involved, but also entrust them with much of the design and involve them intensively in the liturgical event. I strive for a mystagogical, or as mentioned above, iconic homily, which speaks to those sacred depths within people where God is hidden: something of which I am firmly convinced, along with the mystics. Often the hoped-for discovery fails to materialize. But sometimes it does happen, surprisingly and seemingly impossible. Individuals then experience their deepest longing being addressed. If someone has already been searching for what more people are than our statistics reveal, such a liturgy can take them a step further.

I began my reflections on God's hiding places with the touching diary excerpt of the young Clara. It was meant to „foreshadow“ the theme. I also conclude with a text that inspired me. It comes from the left-liberal British Guardian online edition of September 24, 2024. The columnist is John Harris. Even the title of his piece is revealing: „I am a believing agnostic. But like Nick Cave, I yearn for meaning in our chaotic world.“ He then adds, still introducing: „The spiritual dryness of modern life can be hard to bear. Perhaps that is why the singer and his new album Wild God have struck a chord.“

There is a tension in 21 st -century life that may come close to defining how millions of us now live. Whenever we want to commune with other people, we need only reach for an object the size of a Twix and there they all are: scores of acquaintances and a veritable galaxy of complete strangers, offering insights and opinions on a huge range of subjects. But our online lives too often revolve around a mixture of anger, silliness and superficiality.

Where do we go and who can we find to meaningfully share our thoughts about life’s inescapable fundamentals: love, loss, death, fear, bereavement, regret? To properly do so might require real-world company, which can be an equally big ask. Think about all this, and you will sooner or later collide with something that predates the internet: the long and steady secularisation of life in the west and the vast social holes it has left. Once, for all their in-built hypocrisies – and worse – churches at least offered somewhere to ritualistically consider all of life’s most elemental aspects. Now, beyond communities with high levels of Christian observance, they are largely either empty or woefully underattended.

Which brings me to the singer-songwriter Nick Cave, who has just released a new album, Wild God. In November, he will be playing to huge audienc-es in a run of British arenas: a relatively new experience for him and his collaborators, which reflects deep changes in his life and his music. In 2015, he suffered the loss of his 15-year-old son Arthur; seven years later, another son, Jethro, died. And in the midst of an unimaginable level of grief, Cave has not only poured his thoughts and feelings into his art, but repeatedly spoken about the profound personal changes caused by outwardly senseless bereavement, as well as reflecting deeply on other people’s experiences. As a result, his audience has ballooned: as he turns 67, he is probably at the all-time pinnacle of his success.

Wild God is a fantastically moving, life-affirming record. But there is even more to Cave’s bond with his public than music and lyrics. Since 2018, he has overseen the Red Hand Files website, where he answers inquiries on a huge range of subjects. As he puts it, the original idea has grown into “a strange exercise in communal vulnerability and transparency”, which entails reading “100 letters a day”. Because he is a kaleidoscopic, complex figure, some of his replies highlight views that are not to some people’s tastes, as evidenced by his hostility to cultural boycotts of Israel, or his antipathy to so-called cancel culture. Last year, he explained why he attended the coronation of King Charles (“I’m just drawn to that kind of thing – the bizarre, the uncanny, the stupefyingly spectacular, the awe-inspiring”). Most of what he posts combines his curious, questioning instincts with a deep humanity: recent editions have covered loneliness, parenthood and suicide. When he plays live, all of this is in the air: it seems to give everything even more meaning.

The same is true of Faith, Hope and Carnage, the bestseller published in 2022 and made up of dialogues with the Observer writer Sean O’Hagan. It looks ahead to Cave’s tentative return to the Anglicanism he was brought up with, and – among many other subjects – is full of insights about what happens when life fills up with grief and hurt. One of his key beliefs is that when we experience loss, we become more human: these things are universal, and therein lies the key to surviving them. “This will happen to everybody at some point – a deconstruction of the known self,” he says. “It may not necessarily be a death, but there will be some kind of devastation.”

He goes on: “But in time they put themselves together piece by piece … and the thing is, when they do that, they often find that they are a different person, a changed, more complete, more realised, more clearly drawn person.” The book is full of passages like that. I don’t think I have ever read anything like it, which is a tribute to Cave and O’Hagan’s achievement – but also an illustration of what is missing from most of our culture.

Some of us seem to be belatedly trying to fill the gap. I see that impulse in people’s renewed yearning for nature, the ritualistic pleasures of summer festivals, and the popularity of meditation and mindfulness. It is telling that the militant atheism that peaked 20 years ago with the publication of such books as Richard Dawkins’s The God Delusion and Christopher Hitchens’s God Is Not Great now seems passé.

No one should ignore darker developments that run alongside all this – not least the culture warriors whose interest in a Christian revival is part of their loathing of Islam. But there is a very different story about other people’s quiet quests for meaning and transcendence, and the enduring presence in our culture of essentially Christian thinking. The historian Tom Holland – who, like Cave, has returned to the Christianity he was brought up with – says that in the way millions of us interpret world events there is something unspoken: the fact that “at the heart of western culture is the image of someone being tortured to death by the greatest empire on the face of the Earth”. Many modern rituals and gatherings, he says, look like a “tepid echo” of old church festivities. And he likes Cave’s characterisation of God as wild: “Unless you feel a sense of awe and incomprehension, what’s the point? It can’t be a God who’s just nice.”

I am a devout agnostic. But as I get older, there are experiences and aspects of living that often open the way to a sense of the ineffable and mystical, and the need for something that may help me make sense of an increasingly chaotic world, and life’s ruptures and crises that seem to arrive with alarming regularity.

Most Sundays, I go walking with my two kids, which is a reliable emotional pick-me-up. More often than not, we stray into one of the village churches that tend to pepper our routes. It happened again last week, when we spent 15 silent minutes in a disused chapel near the Somerset village of Holcombe, and I thought about an entry in the Red Hand Files that Cave posted in response to a fan’s bafflement that he has found at least some solace in Christianity.

“To my considerable surprise, I have found some of my truths in that wholly fallible, often disappointing, deeply weird and thoroughly human institution of the Church,” he wrote. “At times, this is as bewildering to me as it may be to you.” Here, I think, lies the faint outline of a journey that more people may sooner or later take, and something I can just about imagine: slowly increasing numbers of people being pulled away from their screens, towards something much more human and nourishing. Those pews, in other words, may not stay vacant for ever. ⁵

1. ORF Kreuz und Quer from July 7, 2026

2. Rohr, Richard: The Universal Christ: How a Forgotten Reality Can Change Everything We See, Hope For and Believe, New York 2019, 28–29; 50-70.

3. Guardian, 23. 2. 2023.

4. Pope John Paul II said of her during the Angelus on September 7, 1997: „She heard Jesus’ cry ‘I thirst’ in Eucharistic adoration and in the poor, the abandoned and the dying on the streets of Calcutta. ” Insegnamenti di Giovanni Paolo II, XX/2 (1997), 350–352.

5. Harris, John: I’m a devout agnostic. But, like Nick Cave, I hunger for meaning in our chaotic world, in Guardian Online vom 15.9.2024. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2024/sep/15/meaning-modern-life-nick-cave-chaotic-world (7.7.2026)

Literature

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